dy 


LIBRARY 

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SMALLER  HISTORY  OF  GREECE, 


FKOil  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST. 


By  WILLIAM  SMITH.  LL.D. 


ILLUSTRATED   BY    ENGRAVINGS   ON   WOOD. 


NEW    Y  O  R  K 


HARPER    &    D  R  O  T  HERS,    P  U  B  L  1  S  H  E  R  8, 

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PUBLISHER'S  ADVERTISEMENT, 


TiiJi:  present  History  is  intended  for  the  use  of  Public 
Schools  throughout  the  country,  being  a  more  element- 
ary book  than  the  larger  History  of  Greece  by  the  same 
author,  which  aj^propriately  succeeds  it  in  more  ad- 
vanced classes. 

This  volume  will  be  followed  by  similar  Histories  of 
Rome  and  England. 

The  Table  of  Contents  presents  a  full  analysis  of  the 
work,  and  has  been  so  arranged  that  the  teacher  can 
frame  from  it  questions  for  the  examination  of  his  class, 
tlie  answers  to  which  v.'ill  be  found  in  the  corresponding 
pages  of  the  volume. 


lleimcs  (Mercury). 


Coin  of  MytiLn6. 


CONTENTS. 


position  of  Greece . 

Its  boundaries 

Its  size 

Its  name 

Northern  Greece  . . 
Thessaly 


1 

1 

2 

2 
Epirus 2 


Central  Greece. 
Eastern  Locris , 

Doris 

Phocis 

Boeotia 

Attica , 

Mecraris 


CHAPTER  I. 

Geogr-U'iiy  of  Greece. 

I'agel  P»p« 

1  Peloponnesus  .  ^ 2 

1          Corinth 2 

Arcadia 2 

Achaia 3 

Ai'golis 3 

Laconia 3 

Messenia 3 

Elis 3 

Islands 3 

Euboea 8 

Cyclades 3 

Sporades 3 

Crete 3 

Khodes 3 


2 
2 

2, 

- 

2 

2 
2i 


Western  Locris 2  Influence  of  the  physical  geography 

JEtolia. 2  j     of  Greece  upon  the  political  des- 

Acarnania 2 1     tinies  of  the  people 3 


CHAPTER  II. 


Oeigi:^  of  the  Gueeiis  and  the  IIeboic  Age. 


Date  of  the  commencement  of  Gre- 
cian histoiy 

The  Pelasgians 

The  Hellenes 

Dorians 

yEolians 

lonians 

Achaeias 

Foreign  settlers  in  Greece 

Cecrops  

Danaus 

Pel  ops 

Cadmus 

Phoenician  origin  of  the  Greek 

alphabet 

Heroic  age :  its  supposed  length . . . 

Hercules 


Theseus 6 

4          Minos 7 

4  The  Argonauts 7 

The  Trojan  AVar 7 

Its  supposed  date S 

Eeturn    of    the    Greeks    from 

5'             Troy 8 

5  State  of  Society  in  the  Heroic  Age.  D 


The  King 9 

The  Boule^  or  Council  of  Chiefs  5) 
The  Afjora^  or  general  assembly 

of  freemen 9 

Three  classes :  noble,  common 

freemen,  and  slaves i' 

Simplicity  of  manners '-> 

Advances  made  in  civilization .  1  ft 

Art  of  war 10 


vm 


CONTENTS. 


CIIArTETl  III. 


GENES.^^L   SUBVEY  OF  THii  GbEKK   PEOPLE. — NaTICXAL  iNBTITXTnONS. 


Page 

Tiea  which  bound  the  Greek  people 

together 11 

C-onimunity  of  blood  and  language  II 
^kj:minuity  of  religioud  rites  and 

ceremonies 11 

Ainphictyonic      Council  :      its 

places  and  times  of  meeting.  11 

Olympic  Games 1.' 

rytliiiiu  Games 14 


Para 

Nemean  Games 14 

Isthmian  Games 1-1 

Influence  of  these  games 15 

Oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi :  its 

influence 15 

Community  of  raannera  and  char- 
acter   15 

Want  of  political  union  :  independ- 
ent sovereignty  of  each  city IG 


CHAPTER  IV. 


Eably  IIistoby  of  rri-opoN^ESCS  and  Sparta  to  the  End  op  tub 

MEt3SENIAN   WaKS,   U.C.   008. 


B.C.  Page 

ll04.  Con  luost  of  Peloponnesus  by 

the  Dorians 17 

The  legendary  account 17 

The  Dorians  led  by  the  He- 

raclidje 17 

History  of  the  lleraclidfe  . .     17 
Tcmonus,  (Jresphontes,  and 
Aristodemus  —  tlie   three 
Ileraclida)   who    led   tlie 

Dorians 18 

Invasion    and   conquest  of 

the  Peloponnesus IS 

Division     of    I'eloponnesua 
among  the  conquerors. . .     18 
Remarks  upon  the  legendary 

account IS 

T76.  Lycurgus    the    legislator    of 

Sparta 19 

His  life 11) 

His  legislation I'J 

Population  of  Sparta  divided 
into  tlio  three  classes  of — 

1.  Spartans ^0 

2.  PeriuDci 20 


B.C.  Pep* 

3.  Helots 20 

The  Spartan  government  • 

1.  The  two  kings 20 

2.  Tlie  Gertixiit^  or  Council 

of  30  Elders 21 

3.  Tlic  popular  assembly. . .     21 

4.  The  five  Ephors 21 

Ciiaracter  of  the  Spartan  fjov- 

ernnient 21 

Training  of  the  Spartan  men  .     22 

The  Syssitia 23 

Training  of  the  Spartan  women    2S 
1  )ivision  of  landed  property  . .     23 

Iron  money 23 

Kesults  of  discipline  of  Lycur- 
gus  :  growth  of  Spartan  port- 
er   

743-724.   First  Messcnian  War 

GS5-G()S.  Second  Messenian  War  . . 
Aristomencs,     the    Messenian 

hero 

Tyrtanis,  the  poet 

Coii'iuest  of  Messenia:  its  in- 
corporation with  Lacouia. . . 


24 
24 
25 

26 
25 


CirAPTER  V. 


Kaulv  IIistoby  of  Athens  i»own  to  tuk  EBTAnuBiiMKNT  or  Dr.M(»:;rwAcv 

1»Y   CLlSTIlENES,  JI.O.  bltl. 


Change  nf govcnimont  in  (Jreeco 
from  royalty  to  oligarchy  and 

democracy £7 

Tlie  Grecian  tyrants  or  Despots    2S 
Early  history  of  Atlicnd  ......     28 


( 'ucrnps 23 

The.-eus '.  S 

Cudrus 2S 

Aholilitin  cf  royalty 28 

Life  jVi-choQS 28 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


B.C.  Page  B  c. 

153.  Decennial  Archons 21) 

CSS.  Annual  Archons:  their  insti- 
tution the  first  certain  date 

in  Atlienian  history 29 

Twofold  division  of  the  Athe- 
nians : 29 

1.  EupatridiB,  Geomori,  De-         5C0. 

niiurgi 29 

2.  Four  tribes :   Geleontes, 

Hopletes,      ^gicores, 

Argades 29  527. 

The  nine  Archons   and  theii* 

functions 29 

Government  of  the  Eupatridas    39  514. 

624.  Legislation  of  Draco 30 1 

C12.  Conspiracy  of  Cylon 30  j 

The  Alcmseonida? 80  510. 

69G.  Visit  of  Epimenides  the  Cretan : 

his  purification  of  the  city. .     31 

Life  of  Solon 31 

State  of  Attica  at  the  time  of 
Solon's  legislation  :  civil  dis- 
sensions between  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Plains,  the 
Mountains,  and  the  Shores  .     31 

594   Legislation  of  Solon 31 

Relief  of  debtors 31 

Division  of  the  people  into  four 
classes,  according  to  their 
property : 32 

1.  Pentacosiomedimni. ...     32 

2.  Knights 32 

3.  Zeugitaj 32 

4.  Thetes 32 

Senate  of  Four  Hundred 32 

S«aate  of  the  Areopagus 32 


Pagf 
The  Athenian  government  con- 
tinues an  oligarchy  after  the 

time  of  Solon 33 

Special  laws  of  Solon 33 

Renewal  of  the   civil   dissen- 
sions of  Attica S3 

Usurpation  of  Pisistratus 33 

Pisistratus  twice  expelled  and 

restored 34 

Government  of  Pisistratus 34 

His  death L4 

Government  of  his  sous  llip- 

pias  and  Hipparchus 35 

Conspiracy  of  Hannodius  and 

.  Aristogiton 35 

Assassination  of  Hipparchus . .     35 
Expulsion  of  Ilippias  by  the 
Alcmajonidse  and  the  Lace- 
daemonians       36 

Party  struggles  at  Athens  be- 
tween Clisthenes  and  Isagoras    3G 
Piefomis  of  Clisthenes :  estab- 
lishment of  the  Athenian  de- 
mocracy       36 

Institution  of  10  new  tribes, 

and  of  the  demi 38 

Increase  of  the  number  of  the 

Senate  to  .500 37 

Enlargement  of  the  functions 
and  authority  of  the  Senate 

and  the  Ecclesia 37 

Institution  of  the  Ostracism  . .     37 
Invasion  of  Attica  by  Cleome- 
nes  to  overthrow  the  Athe- 
nian democracy :  failure  of 
the  attempt 3T 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Tnn  Gkef.k  Colonies. 


Origin  of  the  Greek  colonies, 
and    their    relation   to    the 

mother  city 39 

Division  of  the  colonies  into 

four  groups 30 

L  Colonies  in   Asia  Minor  and 

tlie  adjoining  islands 3& 

jEolic,   Ionic,   and    Doric 

colonies .     40 

Miletus  and  Ephesus  the 

most  important 4i 

IL  Colonies  in  the  western  parts 

of  the  Mediterranean 41 

(Jumae  in  Campania 41 


m. 


Syracuse  and  Agrigentum 

in  Sicily 49 

Magna  Gra?cia 42 

Sybaris  and  Croton 43 

Locri 42 

Khegium 43 

Tarentura 42 

Massalia  in  Gaul 44 

Colonies  in  Mrica :  Cyrene  and 

Barca 41 

Colonies  in  Epirus,  Macedonia, 

and  Thi'ace 4-1 

Corcyra 44 

PotidiPa,  Byzantium,   Se- 

lymbria 44 


CONTENTS. 


CHArTEIl  VII. 


TiiE  Teesian  Wars.— Fsom  tue  Ionic  KrrvoLT  to  the  Battle  of  IiIabatuoi^ 

B.C.  500-4J0. 


B.C. 

500. 


Page!  n.c. 
Kint^iloni  of  Lydia:  accession 
of  (JnuPiu^ 45 


Tlie  MtViC-*  and  Persians 4(i 

fir>?-T>>'.K   llvi'^n  of  Cyru." 40 

&iC.  G;ii>tiire  of  Sardi.s :  overthrow 

of  the  Lydian  monarchy  ...  40 
Comiucr^t  of  the  A.-^iatic  Grcek.^ 
by  llarpagns,  the  general  of 

Cyru.'i 40 

629-521.  l{eii;n  of  (Jamhy.-cs 40 

Polvcrate-',  tyrant  of  Samoa  . .  40 

521-485.'  Kuipn  of  Darius 47 

lli.s  inva.-'ion  of  Scvthia 41 

47 


4C5. 
4?4. 
492. 
400. 

4S9. 


Hit-tia>u.«,  tyrant  of  Miletus. 
610.  (Jontiuest  of  Tlirace  and  Mace- 
donia by  the  Pcrsian.s  . . .  .47,  4S 
501.  Expedition  of  Ari-stagoras  and 

tlic  Persians  against  Naxos.     48 
500.  Eevolt  of  Miletus  and  tlie  other 

Greek  cities  of  Asia 4'! 

Aristagoras    solicits   aid   from 

Sparta  and  Athens 49  4S3. 

Burning    of    Sardis     by     the 
Athenians  and  loniaus 49 


Death  of  Aristagoras  and  Jlis- 

ticTUs 50 

Defeat   of  the   Ionian  tit*t  at 

Lade 50 

Capture  of  Jliletus  and  term- 
ination of  the  revolt 50 

Exi>edition  of  Mardouius  into 

Greece II 

Expedition  of  Datia  and  Arta- 

pheraes 51 

Concjuest  of  the  Cyclades  and 

Erctria 51 

Battle  of  Maratlion 52-54 

ExitecMtion  of  Miltiades  against 

I'aros 54 

Trial    and    condemnation    of 

Miltiades 55 

War     between     Athena     and 

^'Egina 65 

Theniistocles    and    Aristidea; 

their  cliaracters 55 

Ostracism  of  Aristides 55 , 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

TUH  Peesi^vn  Wak8.— The  Battles  of  Tiieemopvl^,  SALiUiis,  and  Platav, 

U.C.  4S0-479. 


4-95.  Accession  of  Xerxe.s 60 

484.  Prejiarationa  fur  the  invasion 

of  Greece 57 

A  bridge  thrown  across  the 
Hellespont  and  a  canal  cut 
through    the    isthmua     of 

Mount  Atho.s 57 

160.  Xerxes  sets  out  from  Sardis : 

tiic  march 57 

Numbers  of  the  army 57 

Preparations  of  the  Greeks  to 
resist  Xerxes 58 

Be«<ilnti'>n  to  defend  the  pass 
of  Tlieruiopyla^ 58 

Description  oi  Thennopyhe. . .     5S 

Forces  of  Lconidas  at  Ther- 
iiiopybr 59 

Attack  .and  repulse  of  tlie  Per- 
Hians CO 

Treachciy  of  I'phinltcs :  a  de- 
t.icliment  of  Persians  cross 
tlie  mouutaiuri  by  a  secret 
path CO 


Death    of   Leonidas    and    his 
comrades CI 

Persian   lleet  overtaken  by  a 
storm Gl 

First  Battle  of  Artemisium. , .     C2 

Second  stonn 02 

Second  battle  of  Artemisium  .     02 

Ketreat  of  the  CJreciau  lleet  to 
Salamis C3 

riight  of  the  Athenians  from 
their  city OS 

March  of  the  Pei-slans,  and  ut- 
tenii)t  upon  Delphi 03 

Taking  of  Athens  anil  arrival 
of  the  Persian  fleet C3 

Dissensions  and  debates  of  the 
Greeks 03 

Stratagem  of  TIiemist«M-le«  . . .  04 
.^  PosilioM  of  the  hostile  Heels  . .  (i4 
'vllattlc  of  Salnmiri 04 

Detent  and  flight  of  Xer.ves  ..     16 

The  Greeks  celebrafc  their  vic- 
tory       Od 


CONTENTS. 


x» 


».c. 


479. 


Cnrthaginian  expedition  to 
Sicily 

Prepanitions  of  Mardonius  for 
the  campaign 

Mardonius  occupies  Athens. . . 

Atlienian  embassy  to  Sparta. . 

March  of  the  Spartan  ai-my. . . 


Page 

CG 


C7 
CT 
G7 


478. 


March  of  Mardonius   and  the 

Grcelvs  into  Bujotia Cl 

Battle  of  Platfea G1 

Division  of  the  booty C^^ 

Battle  of  Mycal-s C3 

Siege  and  capture  of  Sestos. . .  CS 


CHAPTER  IX. 

From  the  En'D  of  the  Persian  Wars  to  the  EEonoaNO  or  rnn 
Peloponnesian  "War,  ij.c.  47'J-4I]1. 


473.  Rebuilding  of  Athens 

Attempts  of  the  Lacednemo- 
niaus  to  prevent  Athens  be- 
ing fortified 

Defeated  by  Themistocles 

Fortification  of  Pirjeus 

Farther    proceedings     against 

the  Persians 

]\Iisconduct  of  Praisanias 

The  maritime  supremacy  trans- 

feiTed  to  the  Athenians 

(Confederacy  of  Delos 

Tiie  combined  fleet  under  (Ji- 

mon 

4T1.  Pausanias   convicted   of  trea- 
son, and  put  to  death 

'Strife  of  parties  at  Athens. . . . 
Changes  in  the  constitution. . 
ISlisconduct  of  Tliemistocles  . . 

His  ostracism 

4  JG.  Tiiemistocles  flies  to  Persia. . . 

His  death  and  character. 

Death  of  Aristides 

47G.  Cimon  takes  Eion  on  the  Stry- 

mon  and  reduces  Scyros. . . . 

4''/G.  Revolt  and  conquest  of  Naxos. 

Battle  of  the  Euiymedon 

iZn.  Revolt  of  Tliasos 

4  A.   Earthiiu;ike  at  Sparta,  and  re- 
volt of  the  Helots  and  Me.;- 

senians  

C'.mon  marches  to  the  assist- 
.ance  of  the  Lacedaemonians  : 

his  abrupt  dismissal 

Parties  at  Athens 

(jharacter  of  Pericles 

\Iis  attacks  upon  the  Areopa- 
gus, and  otlier  refonns 

461.  Ostracism  of  (Jimou 

Administration     and     foreign 

policy  of  Pericles 

4G0.  Expedition   of  the  Athenians 
into  Egypt  to  assist  Inarus. . 
455.  Battle  of  CEnophyta,  and  con- 
quest of  Bteotia 

•<55.  Defeat   of    tlie  Athenians    in 
i^ypt 


C9  440.  Expedition  of  Cimon   to  Cy- 
prus :  his  death 

Conclusion   of   the  war  with 


09 

70  44S. 

70  j 

70  447. 
71, 

I 
71 

71  445. 


Pers 


The  Athenian  power  at  its 
height :  their  foreign  posses- 
sions   ■ 

Decline  of  Athenian  power  . . . 

Battle  of  Cliajronea:  loss  of 
Bi  eotia 

Other  reverses 

In%'asion  of  Attica  by  Pleisto- 
anax,  King  of  Sparta 

Thirty  Years'  Truce 

Pericles  has  the  eole  direction 
of  affairs  at  Athens 

His  public  buildings 

Intollectual  activity  at  Ath- 
ens  

Athenian  colonization :  Cleru- 
chies 

Colony  of  Thurii 

Colony  of  Amphipolis 

Attacks  upon  Pericles 

Accusation  of  Anaxagoras,  As- 
I)asia,  and  Pludias 

Imprisonment  and  death  of 
Phidias 

Nature  of  Athenian  maritime 
empire :  amount  of  tribute : 
oppressions 

Revolt  and  conquest  of  Sa- 
moa   

Quarrel  between  Corinth  and 
Corcyra 

Defeat  of  the  Corinthiaps 

Defensive  alliance  between  the 
Corcyraians  and  Athenians. 

Sea-fight  between  the  Corinth- 
ians and  Corcyrajans  :  the 
Athenians  assist  the  latter.  SI 

Revolt  of  Potidiea  from  Ath- 
ens  

Congi-ess  of  tlie  Ptloponne- 
sians  :  they  decide  upon  war 

I  against  Athens 

77  131.  The  Thebans  attack  Plataea  . . 


72 

72 
72 
72 
73 
73 
73 

74  443. 
74  437. 
432. 
74 
74 
75 
75 


440. 

75  435. 
70 
70 1 

^433. 
76 1 
70  432. 

76 

Hv 

771    \ 


77 
7T 

77 

77 

78 
78 

78 
78 

78 
78 

78 

79 
79 
79 

79 

80 
SO 

Si) 

81 

81 

81 

81 

,82 
82 


82 
82 


Xll 


CONTEXTS. 


CHAPTER  X. 
ArnENS  IN  TiiE  Time  of  Pekicles. 


i.«.  Pnpe 

Situation  of  Athens 85 

Lyo!i])ettus S6 

Orif^'in  and  progress  of  the  an- 
cient city 8G 

Temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  8C 

ICxtent  of  the  ncv  city 87 

1'ir.Tus  and  the  I'orts 8*^ 

The  Long  Walls 8s 

Monuments  of  Ciraon 83 

Temple  of  Nike  Apteros. .  88 

The  Theseum 8S 

Tlie  Acropolis  and  its  monu- 
ments    81 

The  Propylsca DO 


B.C.  Pup* 

The  Parthenon tiO 

1.  Tlie  Tympana 91 

2.  The  Metopes 92 

3.  The  Frieze 92 

4.  Statue  of  Athena 92 

Colossal  figure  of  Athena  .  93 

Tlie  Ercchtlu'um S'3 

The  Dionysiac  theatre 15 

The  Areopagus 96 

TliePnyx 90 

Tlie  Agora 90 

Tlie  Ceramlcus 90 

Tlie  Academy 90 

The  Lyceum 90 


CHAPTER  XI. 

The  PriOPONNESiAN  War. — Fiest  Periot>,  from  the  Coatwencement  of  the 
Wak  to  tiie  Peace  of  Nicias,  ij.0.  431-421. 


431.  General  character  of  the  war  .     99 
Allies  of  the  Lucedajmoniaua 

and  Athenians 99 

First  Year.  Invasion  of  Attica  100 
4B0.  »SVco«d  Fear.  Invasion  of  Attica  100 

Plague  at  Athens 100 

Unpoi)ularity  of  Pericles :  he  is 

accused  of  peculation 101 

His  domestic  mi.-' fortunes 102 

429.  Third  Year.   Death  of  Pericles: 

his  character 102 

Siege  of  Plataja 103 

428.  Fourth  Year.     Revolt  of  Myti- 

lOno 103 

427.  Fifth  Year.   Sun-ender  of  Myt- 

ilcno 104 

The  Athenian  demagogue  Cle- 

on 104 

Debates   of  the  Athenian  A.''- 
pombly  resi)ecting  the  Myti- 

leii.-nans 104 

#?T.  Cajiture  of  Plata'a,  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  city 103 


Civil  di.s.«ensions  at  Corcyra  . .   104 
425.  Seventh  Year.    The  Athenians 

take  pos.^ession  of  Pylus. . . .  105 

Plockade  of  Sphacteria 100 

Cleon  appointed  general 107 

Capture  of  Sphacteria 108 

Advantages  of  the  victory. . . .   lOS 
424  Fighth  Year.      Defeat  of  the 
Athenians   at  the  battle  of 

Dclium 108 

Overthrow    of    the    Atlieuian 

empire  in  Thrace 109 

, Prasidas  takes  Amphipolis. . . .   lOD 

423.  Ainth  Year.     l?ani.-ihuient  of 

Thucydides  thn  historian. . .   109 
422.  Tenth  Year.    Cleon   proceeds 

toTliracc 109 

Death  of  Cleon  and  P.rasidas. .  110 
421.  Fleventh  Year.     Fifty  year.s' 
peace  between  Atliens   and 
Sparta,  calleil  the  I'uace  of 
Isicias 110 


CHAPTER 


XII. 


The  Pelopoxnesian  Wah. — Second  Periop,  fuom  ttie  Peace  of  Nicias  to 
Tim  Defeat  of  the  Atublnianb  in  Sicily,  u.c.  421—113, 


i20.   Twelfth  Year.    Dis?ati.<facti<>n 
•  if   the    Spartiin    alii(■^   with 
tlio  peace:  new  coiirc^dcMiuy  111 
Transactitnis    between    Sparta 
and  Athens Ill 


Character  and  policy  of  Alci- 

^lia(lu.^ Ill 

1  Ic  (Uitwits  till'  Lacfihi'iiioiiians  1  i'J 
Alliaiu-y  between  Alliens  and 
Argos 1 IQ 


CONTENTS. 


Xlll 


B  c.  Pnge 

Alcibiades  victor  at  the  Oljan- 

pian  games 113 

ilB.  Fourteenth   Year.    Battle  of 
Mantinea:    victoiy    of   the 

Lacedaemonians 113 

416.  Sixteenth  Year.     Conquest  of 

Melos  by  the  Athenians 113 

415.   Seventeenth  Year.     Origin  of 

the  Sicilian  expedition 113 

Preparations  at  Athens  :  popu- 
lar delusion 114 

Mutilation  of  the  llerma? 114 

General  panic 114 

Accusation  of  Alcihiades 115 

Departure  of  the  fleet 1 15 

Proceedings  in  Sicily 115 

Alcibiades    recalled    home    to 
stand   his  trial:   he  makes 

his  escape 115 

He  takes  refuge  Avith  the  La- 
cedaemonians :  the  advice  he 

gives  to  them 110 

41  i.  Eighteenth  Year.     Nicias  lays 

^:  siege  to  Syracuse 110 

^^^^Description  of  the  city IIG 


B.C.  Pu;;* 

Nicias  seizes  Epipolre,  and  pro- 
ceeds with  his  circumvalla- 

tion  of  the  city lit 

Arrival  of  the  Spartan  general 

Gylippus 113 

Change  in  the  Athenian  pros- 
pects   lis 

Nicias  solicits  re-enforcements  IIJ 
413.  Ainetecnth  Year.     Demosthe- 
nes sent  with  a  large  force 
to  the  assistance  of  Nicias. .  119 

Reverses 120 

The  Athenians  resolve  to  re- 
treat    120 

Prevented  by  an  eclipse  of  the 

moon 120 

Sea-fight  in  the  Great  Harbor.  121 

Victory  of  the  Syracusans 121 

Retreat  of  the  Athenians 121 

SuiTender  of  Nicias  and  De- 
mosthenes   122 

Their  death  and  character  . . .  123 
Total  destruction  of  the  Athe- 
nian aiTaament 122 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


The  Peloponnebian  War. — Thibd  Peeiod,  feom  the  Sicilian  Expedition 
TO  THE  End  of  the  War,  b.o.  413^04. 


412.  Twentieth  Year.    Situation  of 

Athens 123 

Revolt  of  the  Chians  and  of 
tlie  other  Athenian  allies, 
with  the  exception  of  Samos  123  410. 

Samos  the  head-quarters  of  the 

Athenian  fleet 124 

411.   Twenty- Fir stYear.     Recovery 

of  Lesbos  by  the  Athenians .  124 

Scheme  of  Alcibiades 124 

lie  proposes  the  establish- 
ment of  an  oligarchy  at 
Athens 124'403. 

Progress  of  the  oligarchical 
conspiracy  at  Athens 125 

Abolition  of  the  democracy,         40T. 
and    establishment    of   the 
Four  Hundred  at  Athens . . .  125 

Pi'oceedings  at  Samos  :  the 
army  refuses  to  recognize 
the  new  government 120 

Alcibiades  joins  the  democracy 
at  Samos,  and  is  elected  one 
of  the  Athenian  generals. . .  120 

Overthrow  of  the  Four  Hund- 
red   120 

Mindarus,  the  Lacedjcmonian 
admiral,  defeated  at  Cyno.i- 
.=ema 127 


Capture  of  Cyzicus  by  the 
Athenians,  and  second  do- 
feat  of  the  Lacedajmonians 
at  Abydos 127 

Ticentii'Second  Year.  Arrest 
of  Alcibiades  by  Tissapher- 
nes  :  his  escape 127 

Signal  defeat  of  Mindarus  at 
Cyzicus :  his  death 127 

Results  of  this  battle 128 

The  Lacedfemonians  propose  a 
peace,  which  is  rejected 128 

Twcnt]  I -fourth  Year.  Capture 
of  Chalcedon  and  Byzantium 
by  the  Athenians 12S 

Twentii-fifth  Year.  Return  of 
Alcibia.de3  to  Athens 128 

He  is  appointed  general 12S 

He  escorts  the  aacred  proces- 
sion to  Eleusis 128 

Cyrus  comes  down  to  the  coast 
of  Asia 129 

Lysandcr  appointed  command- 
er of  the  Peloponnesian 
fleet 129 

Interview  between  Cyrus  and 
Lysandcr 129 

Alcibiades  intrusts  the  fleet  to 
Antiochns 13^ 


Jtiv 


CONTENTS. 


B.C.  Page- 

Defeat   of  Antiochua    at    No- 

tiiim mo 

Pifmi.seal  of  Alcibiades 130 

40€.  Twenty-tdxth  Year.    Ly.^ander 

superseded  by  (Jallicratidaa.  IPifi 
His  straightfonvard  rondiict. .  130 
He  defeats  Conon  nt  Mytiir-no, 

and  blockades  the  town  ....  131 
The  Athenians   send  a  large 

ilect 131 

Battle  of  Arpinusa> :  defeat  and 

death  of  Callicratidas 131 

Accusation  and  condemnation 

of  the  Athenian  generals. .  .•  132 


B.C. 

405. 


•104. 


Pttgi 

Twentf/sriirnth  Yejir.  Reap- 
pointment of  Ly.sander  as 
admiral 132 

The  war  transferred  to  the 
Hellespont 133 

D'jfeat  and  destruction  of  the 
Athenian  fleet  at  iEgo'pc- 
tami 133 

Proceedings  of  Lycander:  cap- 
ture of  tlie  Athenian  depend- 
encies    133 

Tivntn-cirjhth  and  last  Year. 
Capture  of  Athens  :  terms  of 
peace 13J 

«  ♦' 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


The  Thirty  Tyr.\.nts,  and  the  Death  oi''  Sockates,  u.c.  404-809. 


404.  The  Athcninn  democracy  abol- 
ished: establishment  of  the 

Thirty  Tyrants l."5 

Cruelty  of  Ci-itias 135 

Opposition  and  death  of  The- 

ramcncs 136 

De-Atli  of  Alcibiades 13G 

Jealousy  of  the  Grecian  states 
toward  Sparta   and  Lysan- 

der 137 

403.  Thrasybulus  and  other  Athe- 
nian e.\.ilos  seize  Phylo 137 


39a. 


Occupy  Pineus 1.^7 

Death  of  Critias 137 

Deposition  of  the  Thirty,  and 

establishment  of  the  Ten. . .  137 
The  Lacediemonians  march  to 

Athens 1.S7 

Uestoration  of  the  democracy.  138 

Life  of  Socrates 13S 

Eimiity  against  him '. .   139 

His   impeachment,  trial,  and 

death UO 


CHAPTER  XV. 


The  ExrEBiTlON  of  tiie  Gukeks  unpeh  Cyrus,  and  PvETnEAT  of  tiie  Ten 

TuouiiANi),  11.G.  401-400. 

..  141 


401.  Causes  of  the  expedition 

Cyrus    engages    an    anuy    of 

Greek  niercenaries 

March  of  Cyrus  to  Tarsus  .... 
Discontents  of  tlic  Greeks. . . . 
Passage  of  the  Euphrates  .... 
March  through  the  desert  into 

lialiylonia 

IWittle  of  < "unaxa 

DtMtli  of  Cyrus 

1  )ismay  of  tlie  (J reeks 

Their  tre.ity  with  Tissiii)henies 
Their  retreat   to  tlie   Greater 

Zab 140 


Seizure  of  the  generals 147 

Election  of  Xeuoplion  and  oth- 
ers as  generals 117 

March  from  the  Zab  to  the  con- 
iincs  of  the  Canhu'hi 147 

March  across  the  mountains  of 

the  Carduchl 147 

144  400.  March  tlinmgli  Armenia  and 
other  countries  to  Tnipczus 
on  tlie  Kuxine 14S 

March  t<>  Pyzmtiiim 148 

.399.  The  (^rock-    are    iti(  oiporatPil 

with  the  aimy  of  Thimbrou.  149 


14? 
11-2 
14i 
144 


115 
145 
145 
140 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

The  S0PiiEMACY  of  Sparta,  u.c.  404-371. 


B.C. 

Papre 

B.C. 

4  4.  Nature  of  the  Spartan  empire. 

140 

Uecarchies  .ind  Ilarmosts 

140 

SOS. 

Acce33ion  of  Agesilaus 

140 

150 

150 

303 

330. 

Affairs  of  Asia  Minor 

The      Lacedu3monians      send 

301 

Tliimbron     to     assist     the 

Greeks  in  Asia  Minor 

150 

Dercyllidas  supersedes  Thira- 

387 

broQ           ... 

150 

150 

303. 

C.unpaign  of  Dercyllidas 

3SG 

300. 

Aojesilaus   supersedes  Dercyl- 

lidas   

150 
150 

Mortifies  Lysander 

3S2 

1  Ii-i  first  caniDaicn 

150 

lie  winters  at  Ephesus 

150 

335. 

His  second  campaign 

151 

lie  defeats  Tissaphemes 

152 

Death  of  Tissaphernes,  who  is 

370. 

succeeded  by  Tithraustes  . . 

15'J 

304. 

Agesilaus  recalled  home 

Intrigues    of   Tithraustes    in 

152 

Ct  recce 

152 

War     between     Sparta     and 

Thebes 

152 

The  Athenians  join  the  The- 

378 

bans                                    .    . . 

15-^ 

Defeat  and  death  of  Lysander. 

153 

Retreat  of  Pausanias 

1.5:] 

I^eague  against  Sparta 

15:5 

153 

Battle  of  Corinth 

154 

Homeward  march  of  Agesilaus 

1.54  374. 

Battle  of  C'nidus 

154 

Rattle  of  Coroaea 

154  371. 

Keturn  of  Agesilaus  to  Sparta. 

157 1 

Results  of  the  battle  of  Cni- 
dus :  loss  of  the  Spartan 
maritime  emi)ire 

Conon  restores  the  long  walls 
of  Athens 

New  system  of  tactics  intro- 
duced by  Iphicrates 

He  destroj^s  a  Spartan  mora. . 

Peace  of  Antalcidas 

Its  character 

Aggressions  of  Sparta  in  Bceo- 
tla 

Rebuilding  of  Plat.Tca 

War  between  Sparta  and  Olyn- 
thus 

Phoebidas,  the  Laceda?monian 
commander,  seizes  the  Cad- 
mea,  the  citadel  of  Thebes, . 

Reduction  of  Olynthus 

Unpopularity  of  Sparta 

Pelopidas 

Conspiracy  against  the  Lace- 
daBmonian  party  at  Thebes. 

The  Lacedfcmoniuns  are  ex- 
pelled from  the  Cadmea. . . . 

Alliance  between  the  Thebans 
and  Athenians 

Organization  of  the  new  Athe- 
nian confederacy 

The  Theban  ^^  Sacred  Band"  . 

Character  of  Epaminondas  . . . 

Spartan  invasion  of  Bceotia. . . 

Progress  of  the  Theban  arms  . 

Jealousy  of  Athens 

Peace  of  Callias :  the  Thebans 
excluded  from  it 


P«g« 

151 

151 

158 

1.50 
150 


1.50 
15a 


159 


160 
160 
100 
161 

IGl 

1G2 

102 

102 
102 
103 
103 
104 
104 

104 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

Tn3  Supremacy  of  TnERES,  i?.o.  371-301. 

Restoration  of  the  Messenians, 


871.  Invasion  of  Bceotia  by  Cleom- 

brotus 105 

Battle  of  Leuctra 165 

Its  effect  throughout  Greece. .   166 
Treatment  of  the  Spartan  sur- 
vivors    160 

Jason  of  PheriB  joins  the  The- 
bans   106 

370.  Jason  of  Pherro  slain 167 

Invasion   of  Peloponnesus  by 

the  Thebans 167 

Alarm  at  Sparta 167 

Vigorous  measures   of  Agesi- 
laus    167 

Establishment  of  the  Arcadian 

confederation 167 

Foundation  of  Megalopolis  ...  167 


368. 
367. 


n64. 
362. 


361. 


and  foundation  of  Messene  .  16S 
Expedition  of  Pelopidas  into 

Thessaly 163 

Embassy  of  Pelopidas  to  Per- 
sia    108 

Seizure  of  Pelopidas  by  Alex- 
ander of  Thessaly 169 

Ilis  release 109 

Death  of  Pelopidas 169 

Invasion  of  Peloponnesus  by 

Epaminondas 170 

Battle  of  Mantinea 170 

A  general  jieace,  from  which 
Sparta  alone  is  excluded  . . ,  170 

Agesilaus  sails  to  Egypt 170 

His  death 17« 


XTl 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

JlSTOEY   OF   THE   SICILIAN   GREEKS    FKOM    "^IIE    DEBTRCCTION    OP   THE  ATIEENIA* 
AliM.UIEMT   TO  THE   DE-VTH   OF   TlMOLEON. 


B.C.  Page 

4)5.  Dionysina  the  elder  becomes 

tynint  of  Syracuse ITl 

His  prosperous  reign 171 

His  love  of  literature 171 

3S9.  Visit  of  riuto  to  his  court 172 

'*G7.  Death  of  the  elder  Dionysius, 

and  accession  of  the  younger  172 

Second  visit  of  I'lato 172 

IJanishmcnt  of  Dion 172 

856.  Dion    expels   Dionyaius   from 

Syracuse 172 

353.  Assasaination  of  Dion 173 


B.C.  Page 
340.  Dionysius    restored    to    Syra- 
cuse     173 

The  Syracusans  invoke  the  aid 

of  Corinth 173 

Character  of  Timolcon 173 

He  sails  for  Sicily 173 

34S.  Surrender  of  Dionysius,   and 

con'iuest  of  Syracuse 173 

339.  Tinioleon  defeats  the  Cartha- 
ginians at  the  Ciimcsus 174 

His  moderation 174 

3GG.  His  popularity  and  death 1T4 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

PniLiP  OF  Macedon,  I!.c.  S59-33G. 


Description  of  Macedonia 

175  347 

Kings  of  tlie  country 

175 

34(5 

359. 

Accession  of  I'hilip 

l.G 

He  subdues  the  Illyrians 

17G 

His  military  discipline 

176 

35S. 

Capture  of  Amphiiiolis 

170 

357. 

l'\iundation  of  Thilippi 

177 

»4'J 

;ibi- 

"  >  The  Social  War 

177 

3U>. 
357. 

Commencement  of  the  Sacred 

339 

War     

177 

177 

The  I'hocians  seize  Delphi  . . . 

PrncToss  of  the  war 

177 

•!;w 

25i. 

rhilip  interferes  in   the  war, 

and  defeats  the  I'hocians  . . 

178 

He  becomes  master  of  Thessa- 

ly 

17S 

He    attacks  Thrace    and  the 

Cliersonese 

17S 

Demosthenes :  his  oratory . . . . 

17S 

His  first  Philippic 

179 

aivo. 

The  Olynthiaus  ask  assistance 

33G 

of  Alliens 

179 

The  Olyntliiac  orations  of  Do- 

luostlienos     

179 
179 

Character  of  rhociou 

Fall  of  Olynthus 

I'eacc  between  Thilip  and  the 

Athenians 

C<^>n<iuest  of  IMiocis  by  I'hilip  . 

ICnd  of  the  Sacred  War 

Kesults  of  the  Sacred  War. . . . 
I'hilip's  expedition  to  Tliracc. 
Ho   comes  into  collision  with 

tlie  Atlienians 

Tlie  Atlienians  compel  riiilip 

to  raise  the  siege  of  Uyzan- 

tiiim 

Charge  of  sacrilege  against  the 

Amphissians 

riiilip  appointed  general  by  the 

Aniphictyonic  Council 

He  seizes  Klatea 

League   between  Athena  and 

Thebes 

Battle  of  Cha;ronea 

Its  results 

Conpcss  at  Corinth 

I'reparations  for  the  Persian 

expedition 

Assassination  of  riiilip 

Hid  death 


IT? 

190 
ISO 
ISO 
ISO 
ISO 

ISO 


1*^1 

ISl 

IRI 
isl 

ISl 
ISl 
ISl 

1S4 


1R2 

ISi 
182 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Alexander  the  Great,  i;.c.  33G-323. 


Education  of  Alexander 1^." 

B36.  Kojoicing  at  Athens  for  I'liil-        I 

ill's  death 1  "54  V/oC). 

Movements  in  Greece 1S4 

Alexander  marches  into  Greece, 


and  is  appointed  generalis- 
siiuo  for  the  Persian  War. . .   194 

He  luarclie.i  against  the  Thra- 
ciniiH  and  Trilcillians I'^l 

Report  of  iil.<  ik'Hth W* 


CONTENTS. 


B.C.  Pape 

Revolt  of  the  Thebang 165 

Rapid    march    of   Alexander, 
and  destruction  of  Thebes. .  1S5 

Conduct  of  the  Athenians 185 

The  orators  spared  by  Alex- 
ander   ISC 

334.  Alexander  crosses  the  Helles- 
pont   156 

Battle  of  the  Granicus 187 

lie  conquers  the  western  part 

of  Asia  Minor 1S7 

833.  lie  conquers  Lycia  and  Pum- 

phylia  in  the  winter ISS 

He  collects  his  forces  at  Gor- 

dium  in  the  spring ISS 

The  Gordian  knot 1S8 

He  marches  through  Cilicia  . .   188 

His  bath  in  the  Oydnus ISS 

Battle  of  Issus ISi) 

Results  of  the  victoiy 100 

Conquest  of  Phoenicia 100 

832.  Capture  of  Tyre  after  a  siege 

of  seven  months 101 

Proposals  of  peace  from  Darius  191 

Capture  of  Ga?a 192 

He  marches  into  Egypt 192 

He  founds  Alexandria 102 

He  consults  the  oracle  of  Am- 

mon 192 

331.  He  crosses  the  Euphrates 102 

Battle  of  Gaugamela  or  Arbela  103 

Flight  of  Darius 193 

Alexander  takes  possession  of 

Babylon 193 

He  marches  to  Susa  and  Per- 

sepolis , 194 

The  enormous  treasures  which 
he  finds  in  those  cities 194 


B.C.  w 

Destruction  of  Persepolis rJ4 

330.  March  to  Ecbatana,  and  pur- 
suit of  Darius 105 

Death  of  Darius 1S5 

Conquest    of    Hyrcania    and 

Drangiana 105 

Accusation  of  Philotas 105 

His  death. 100 

329.  Alexander  crosses  the  Oxus  in 

pursuit  of  Bessus 19G 

Capture  and  death  of  Bessus  .   196 

328.  Conquest  of  Sogdiana ICS 

Alexander  marries  Roxana. . .  106 

Death  of  Clitus lOT 

327.  Plot  of  the  Pages 197 

Alexander  invades  India 197 

He  crosses  the  Indus,  and  de- 
feats Porus  on  tlie  Hydaspes  19S 
He    advances    as  far    as  the 

Hyphasis 198 

The  troops  refuse  to  proceed 

farther 198 

Descent  down   tlie  Hydaspes 

and  Indus 198 

32G.  Voyage  of  Nearchus 199 

March  of  Alexander  through 

Gedrosia 199 

325.  Arrival  at  Susa 199 

Inteimarriages    between    the 
Macedonians  and  Persians. .  109 

Mutiny  of  the  army 200 

Death   of  Hepha>stion  at  Eo- 

batana 200 

324.  Alexander  takes  up  his  res- 
idence at  Babylon 200 

His  schemes 200 

323.  His  death 201 

His  character 201 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

Fkom  the  Death  of  Alexandee  the  Geeat  to  the  Conquest  op  Geeecb 

by  tue  ko.mans,  b.o.  323-1 4^3. 

Ambitious  projects  of  Perdic- 

cas 20<J 

His   invasion    of  Egypt    and 

death 20T 

Fresh  division  of  the  provinces 

at  Triparadisus 20T 

Antipater  declared  regent 207 

His  death 207 

Polysperchon  regent 207 

He    conciliates    the    Grecian 

states 207 

Death  of  Phocion 208 

War    between     Polysperchon 

and  Cassandcr 20S 

111  success  of  Polysperchon. . .  208 
Cassander  Ijecomcs  master  of 

Macedonia  and  puts  Olym- 

pias  to  death 2C8 


831. 

Defeat  of  Agis  in  Greece 

202 

321 

330. 

Speech  of  Demosthenes  on  the 

Crown , 

202 
202 

825. 

Karpalus  arrives  in  Athens . . . 

Accusation  and  exile  of  De- 

mosthenes   

203 

323. 

Insurrection    of   the    Grecian 

states 

203 

318 

Defeat  of  Antipater,  and  siege 

of  Lamia 

204 

The  Lamian  war 

204 

322. 

Defeat  and  death  of  Leonna- 

317 

tU3 

204 
204 

Battle  of  Crannon 

End  of  the  Lamian  war 

205 

316 

Death  of  Demostlienes 

205 

323. 

Division   of  the  provinces   on 

Alexander'-  deutli 

206 

xvm 


CONTENTS. 


B.C.  Pipe 

315.  Coalition  r-ffainst  Antigomia. .  *2()S 

311.  Peace  concluded 2(.8 

Murder  of  Uoxana  and  her  sou  20J 
310.  Itenewal  of  the   war  against 

Antigonus 209 

307.  IIU  son  Demetrius  Poliorcetea 
expels  the  Macedonians  from 

Athens 200 

300.  He  defeats  Ptolemy  in  a  sea- 
fight  off  Salamis  in  Cyprus.  210 

2a5.  He  besieges  Rhodes. . . .' 210 

JOl.  Battle  of  Ipsus 210 

Death  of  Antigonus 210 

Third  partition  of  the  empire 

of  Alexander 211 

200.  Demetrius  captures  Athens.. .  211 
204.  He    obtains    the    Macedonian 

throne 211 

2S7.  Is  driven  out  of  Macedonia  ...  211 

'.Sli.  His  death 212 

281.  War  between  Lysiraachus  and 

Seleucu.s 212 

Battle  of  Corupedioa:  death  of 

Lysimachus 212 ' 

2S0.  Assassination  of  Seleucus  by        | 

Ptolemy  Ceraunus 213 

270.  luvasion  of  the  Celts,  and  death        | 

of  Ptolemy  Ceraunus 213 

Tlio  Celts  attack  Delphi 213 

278.  x\iitigonus    Gonatas    ascends 

the  Macedonian  throne 214 

272.  Death  of  Pyrrhus 214 

S51.V  The  Ach.Tan  League 214 

Revived  by  Aratus  of  Sicyon  .   214 
Constitution  of  the  League  . . .  21.5 

State  of  Sparta 215 

244.  Reforms  of  Agis 31.5 

2'J5.  Reforms  of  Cleomenes 215 

War  between  (Jleonienes  and     ' 

the  Achaean  JjCague 210 

224.  The  Aclucans  call  in  the  as- 
sistance of  Antigonus  Doson  21G 

221.  Battle  ..f  Sellasia 210 

220.  Accession  of  Philip  V 21'3 


B.C.  / 


Tiie  JEtolian  League 2 lb 

"War  between  the  ^Etolian  and 

.\clKpau  Leagues 217 

The  Achicans  call  in  the  assist- 
ance of  Philip 217 

The  Social  War 217 

217.  Peace  between  Philip  and  the 

yEtolians 217 

216.  War  between  Philip  and  the 

Romans 218 

213.  Death  of  Aratus 218 

200.  Piiilopccmen 216 

200.  Renewal  of  the  war  between 

I'hillp  and  the  Romans 21S 

107.  Battle  of  Cynosccphate 218 

I'JG.  Greece  declared  free  by  Fla- 

I  mininus 210 

192.  War  between  the  Romans  and 

yEtolians 219 

Aiiticchus  IH.  crosses  over  into 

Greece 219 

ilOl.  He  is' defeated  by  the  Romans 
I  at  the  battle  of  Thennopylaj  219 

192.  Subjugation  of  Sparta  by  tlie 

I  Achtcans 213 

1S9.  Subjugation  of  the  ^liItoliau.s  by 

the  Romans 21  > 

ilSS.  Capture    of    Sparta    by    the 

AcliR^ans 219 

1=!3.  Dentil  of  Philopccmcn 219 

170.  Death  of  I'liilip,  and  accession 
of  Per.-^eus 219 

171.  War  between  Perseus  and  the 
Romans 220 

IGS.  Defeat  and  capture  of  Pei-sQus.  220 
Division  of  Macedonia 220 

107.  One  thousand  of  the  principal 

Acha'ans  are  sent  to  Ron:e  .  120 

147.  War  between  the  Acha'ans  and 

the  Romans 220 

14G.  Destruction    of    Corinth    by 

Muiumius 221 

Greece  becomes  a  Roman  prov- 
ince    221 


CHAPTER  XXIT. 

Sketch  of  the  History  of  C;rf,kk  LiTEii.vTiKr  fkom  the  earliest  Tlmes  to 
TiiK  Reign  of  Alexander  the  Gke^vt. 

Epic  Poetni:  its  two  classes  .  222'6G0.  Tyrtwus  and  Alcnjan 224 

Poems   of  Homer:    the   Iliad        JG25.  Arion 225 

and  the  Odyssey 222  GOO.  Alca'us  and  Sappho 2'.5 

Subject  of  tlie  Hind 222  .V20.  Anacroon 22G 

Subject  i)i  tlie  ( )(lvssey 2'2'2  .WO.   Simonides 220 

Birthplace  of  Homer 223  400.   Pindar 220 

Date 2231          llistonj 227 

Preservation  <if  the  Poems 223  440.  Herodotus 2'.7 

Collected  by  Pisistratus 2231420.  Thucvdides 228 

P..cms  of  Hesiod 224  370.   Nciiophon 220 


Jjuric.  I'octri/ 224 

rOO.  Ardiilochus". 224 


'J'lir  Ihdvin , «  230 

Origin  of  Tragedy 22C 


CONTENTS. 


XIX 


s  c.  Page 

Origin  of  Comedy 2:50 

B20.  Thespifl 230 

510.  Chosrilua  and  rhrynichus 230 

Pratinas 230 

Tragic  trilogy 2.J1 

Satyric  drama 231 

Subjects  of  Greek  tragedy 231 

525-456.  iEschvlus 231 

495^106.  Sophocles 232 

430-406.  Euripides 233 

Old  Attic  comedy 233 

Cratinus 233 

Eupolis 233 

4-14-380.  Aristophanes 2.33 

Middle  Attic  comedy 233 

New  Attic  comedy 234 

3o0-2T0,  Philemon 234 

842-291.  Menander 234 

Oraton/ 234 

480-411.  Antiphon 234 

4!>T-391.  Andocides 234 

45S-37S.  Lysias 234 

4.%-33S.  Isocrates 235 

420-M3.  Isseus 205 


B.C.  Papa 

389-314.  Machines 235 

3S5-322.  Demostlienes 230 

Lycurgus,  llyperides,  and  Di- 
narchus 2.3G 

Philosophy 83(5 

Ionic  scliool 23G 

640-5.50.  Tiiales 230 

010-547.  Anaximander 2.36 

540-4S0.  Anaximenes 230 

500-428.  Anaxagoras 226 

l'21eatic  school 236 

540-500.   Xenophanes 236 

Pythagorean  school 237 

.580-510.  Pythagoras 237 

4G9-3^9.  Socrates £37 

The  Academicians 23T 

429-347.  Plato 237 

Tlie  Peripatetics 238 

384-322.  Aristotle 2;» 

The  Epicureans 239 

342-270.  Epicurus 2;',9 

The  Stoics 239 

310-221.  Zeno 269 


The  Muse  CUj. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS. 


Acropolis  of  Athens  restored. 

Areli  of  Tiryns 

Map  of  Greece, 


Feontibpieck. 
Title-page. 


vn 

xix 

1 


IlermcR  (Merom-v) 

Coin  of  MytilCiie 

The  .Muse  Clio 

Mount  Paranssus 

Atlicn.i    (Minerva)    BuperiDtending 

the  building  of  the  Argo 4 

Greek  (,'hariot lU 

Head  of  Olympian  Zeus  (Jupiter). .     11 

Tiie  Foot-race. V2 

Wrestling VI 

Hurling  the  javelin 13 


vi;T]ie  Parthenon  restored 

Centaur,  from  the  metopes  of  the 
Parthenon 

From  the  frieze  of  the  I'arthenon. 
— Panathenaic  procession 

The  Erechtheum  restored 

The  Piraeus  restored 

Pericles  and  Aspasia 

P.ay  of  Pylus 

View  of  the  fort  Euryalus  at  Syra- 
cuse   


Boxing 13  Map  of  Syracuse 

Isthmian  crowns 14!  View  of  the  theatre  at  Ephesus 

Tripod  of  Apollo  at  Delplii 15;Coin  of  Athens 

The  Horse-race IG 

The  Chariot-race 10 

Apollo 17 

Ancient  bridge  in  Laconia 20 

Athena  (Minerva) 27 

Site  of  Ephesus 3D 

Jlap  of  the  cliief    ^reek  colonies  in 

Asia  Minor 40 

Map  of  the  chic.'     rreek  colonies  in 

Sicily 41 

Map  of  the  chi  .,  Greek  colonies  in 

Southern  Itafy 4?> 

Tomb  of  Cyrus 45 

Plan  of  the  battle  of  Marathon 5:! 

Crfcek  soldier r>() 

Plan  of  Thcnnopylfe 5'> 

Plan  of  the  battle  of  Salamis 05 


The  Parthenon  in  its  present  state.  6'.! 

Athens  restored,  from  the  Pnyx. . .  84 
Tonii)le  of  Niko  Apteros  (the  Wing- 
less Victoiy)  on  the  Acropolis  at 

Athens 8") 

Plan  of  Athens SO 

liiiins  of  the  temple  of  the  Olympian 

Zeus    87 

The  Thcseum  restored S'.i 

I'lan  of  the  Acropolis IM) 

The  propyljea  restored 'Jl 


Hust  of  Socrates 

Ruins  of  Sardis 

Route  of  the  Ten  Thousand  .... 

A  Greek  warrior 

Corinth  restored,  viewed  from  tlie 
Acrocorinthus 

Ocrca?  (greaves) 

(Join  of  Syracuse 

inato 

Demosthenes 

Coin  of  Alexander  the  Great 

Coin  of  Macedonia 

Coin  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 

I  oin  of  Ptolemy  I.,  Soter 

( Join  of  Soleucus 

Coin  of  Philip  V.,  King  of  Macedo- 
nia  

(Join  of  Purseus,  King  of  Macedonia 

I  A'rc,  with  seven  stiings 

Homer 

I'indar 

Herodotus 

Thurydides 

Sophocles 

Kuripidi  B 

Mennnder  

Aristotle 


Paf-e 

l»i 

03 

P4 
15 

'.'7 

OD 

105 

ni 

117 
123 
134 

ir>5 

141 
143 
14J 

l.^-S 
105 
171 
174 
175 
183 
208 
211 
2T2 
218 

217 
220 
S2S 
223 
22(J 
227 
228 
28'3 
233 
234 
239 


ill 


111!' 


.,)ll!i 


mm 


l&mJ 


';2:^;Jv^_l''i':''l 


^  Jmm 


^*  -;;Ji  j 


n  I 


►3 


m' 


-J- 


HISTORY   OF    GREECE 


Mount  Parnassus. 


CHAPTER  L 

GEOGRAPHY   OF   GREECE. 

Greece  is  the  southern  portion  of  a  great  peninsnhi  of  Europe, 
washed  on  three  sides  by  the  MediteiTanean  Sea,  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Cambunian  Mountains,  Avhich  separate  it  from 
Macedonia.  It  extends  from  the  fortietli  degree  of  latitude  to  the 
thirty-sixth,  its  greatest  length  being  not  more  than  250  English 
miles,  and  its  gi-eatest  breadth  only  180.  Its  surface  is  considera- 
bly less  than  that  of  Portugal.  Tliis  small  area  was  divided  among 
a  number  of  independent  states,  many  of  them  containing  a  terri> 
tory  of  only  a  few  square  miles,  and  none  of  them  larger  tlian  an 
English  county.  But  the  heroism  and  genius  of  the  Greeks  have 
given  an  interest  to  the  insignificant  spot  of  earth  bearing  their 
name,  which  the  vastest  empires  have  never  equalled. 

The  name  of  Greece  was  not  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try. They  called  their  land  Ifellas^  and  themselves  Hellenes.  At 
first  the  word  Hellas  signified  only  a  small  district  in  Tliessaly,  from 
whieh  the  Hellenes  gi-adually  spread  over  the  whole  country.     The 

A 


it  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Ciiap.L 

names  of  Greece  and  Greeks  come  to  us  from  the  Romans,  uho 
gave  the  name  of  Gnccia  to  the  country  and  of  Graci  to  tlie  inliab- 
itants. 

Tlie  two  northerly  pi'ovinces  of  Greece  arc  Thcssaly  and  Ejnntu^ 
separated  from  each  other  by  Mount  Pindus.  Thessaly  is  a  fertile 
plain  inclosed  by  lofty  mountains,  and  drained  by  the  river  Pencils, 
which  finds  its  way  into  the  sea  through  the  celebrated  Yale  of 
Tempe'.  E])irus  is  covered  by  rugged  ranges  of  mountains  running 
from  north  to  south,  through  which  the  Achelous,  the  largest  river 
of  Greece,  flows  towards  the  Corinthian  Gulf. 

In  entering  central  Greece  from  Thessaly  the  road  runs  along 
the  coast  through  the  narrow  pass  of  Thermojjvla",  between  the  sea 
and  a  lofty  range  of  mountains.  The  district  along  the  coast  was 
inhabited  by  the  eastern  Locrians,  while  to  their  west  were  Doris 
and  Phocis,  the  greater  part  of  the  latter  being  occu])ied  by  Mount 
Parnassus,  the  abode  of  the  Muses,  upon  tlie  slo])CS  of  which  lay  the 
town  of  Delphi,  with  its  celebrated  oracle  of  Apollo.  South  of 
Phocis  is  Boeotio,  which  is  a  large  hollow  basin,  inclosed  on  every 
side  by  mountains,  which  prevent  the  waters  from  flowing  into  the 
sea.  Hence  the  atmos})herc  was  dapp  and  thick,  to  Avhich  circum- 
stance the  witty  Athenians  attributed  the  dullness  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. Thebes  was  the  chief  city  of  Bwotia.  South  of  Bccotia  lies 
Attica,  which  is  in  the  form  of  u  triangle,  having  two  of  its  sides 
washed  by  the  sea,  and  its  base  united  to  the  land.  Its  soil  is  light 
and  dry,  and  is  better  ada])ted  for  tlie  growth  of  fruit  than  of  corn. 
It  was  particularly  celebrated  for  its  olives,  which  were  regarded  as 
the  gift  of  Athena  (Minerva),  and  were  always  under  the  care  of 
that  goddess.  Athens  was  on  the  western  coast,  between  four  and 
five  miles  from  its  port,  Pira!us.  "West  of  Aitica,  towards  the  isth- 
mus, is  the  small  district  of  Mer/aris. 

The  western  half  of  central  Greece  consists  of  westcrji  Lorris, 
yE folia,  and  Ararnania.  These  districts  were  less  civilized  tluin 
the  other  countries  of  Greece,  and  were  the  haunts  of  rude  robber 
tribes  even  as  late  as  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

Central  Greece  is  connected  Avith  the  southern  peninsula  by  a 
narrow  isthmus,  on  which  stood  the  city  of  Corintli.  So  narrow  is 
this  isthmus  that  the  ancients  regarded  the  ])cninsu]a  as  an  island, 
and  gave  to  it  the  name  of  l^cloponnesns,  or  tlie  island  of  Pelojis, 
from  the  mythical  hero  of  this  name.  Its  modern  name,  the  Mo- 
rea,  was  bestowed  ujwn  it  from  its  resemblance  to  the  leaf  of  the 
mulberry. 

The  mountains  of  Pelo])onncsus  have  their  roots  in  the  centre  of 
tlie  country,  from  which  they  branch  out  towards  the  sea.  This 
central  region,  culled  Arcadia,  is  the  Switzerland  of  the  peninsula. 


Chap.  I.  MOUNTAINS  AND  RIVERS.  3 

It  is  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  mountains,  forming  a  kind  of  natural 
wall,  which  separates  it  from  the  remaining  Peloponnesian  states. 
Tho  other  chief  divisions  of  Peloponnesus  were  Achaia,  Argolis, 
Laconia,  Messenia,  and  Elis.  Achaia  is  a  narrow  slip  of  country 
lying  betAveen  the  northern  barrier  of  Arcadia  and  the  Corinthian 
Gulf.  Argolis,  on  the  east,  contained  several  independent  states,  of 
which  the  most  important  was  Argos.  Laconia  and  ]\fcssenia  occu- 
jjicd  the  whole  of  the  south  of  the  peninsula  from  sea  to  sea :  these 
two  countries  Avere  separated  by  the  lofty  range  of  TaygCtus,  run- 
ning from  north  to  south,  and  terminating  in  the  promontory  of  Tse- 
narum  (now  Cape  Matapan),  the  southernmost  point  of  Greece  and 
Europe.  Sparta,  the  chief  town  of  Laconia,  stood  in  the  valley  of 
the  Eurotas,  which  opens  out  into  a  plain  of  considerable  extent  to- 
wards the  Laconian  Gulf.  Messenia,  in  like  manner,  was  drained 
by  the  Pamisus,  whose  plain  is  still  more  extensive  and  fertile  than 
that  of  tlie  Eurotas.  J^iis,  on  the  west  of  Arcadia,  contains  the 
memorable  plain  of  Olympia,  through  which  the  Alpheus  flows,  and 
in  which  the  city  of  Pisa  stood. 

Of  the  numerous  islands  which  line  the  Grecian  shores,  the  most 
important  was  Euboea,  stretching  along  the  coasts  of  Boeotia  and  At- 
tica. South  of  Euboea  was  the  group  of  islands  called  the  Ci/clades, 
lying  around  Delos  as  a  centre  ;  and  east  of  these  were  the  Sjiorades, 
near  the  Asiatic  coast.  South  of  these  groups  are  the  large  islands 
of  Crete  and  Rhodes. 

The  physical  features  of  the  country  exercised  an  important  in- 
fluence upon  the  political  destinies  of  the  people.  Greece  is  one  of 
the  most  mountainous  countries  of  Europe.  Its  surface  is  occupied 
by  a  number  of  small  plains,  either  entirely  suiTounded  by  lime- 
stone mountains  or"  open  only  to  the  sea.  Each  of  the  principal 
Grecian  cities  was  founded  in  one  of  these  small  plains ;  and,  as  the 
mountains  which  separated  it  from  its  neighbours  were  lofty  and 
rugged,  each  city  grew  up  in  solitary  independence.  But  at  the 
same  time  it  had  ready  and  easy  access  to  the  sea,  and  Arcadia  was 
almost  the  only  political  division  that  did  not  possess  some  territory 
irpon  the  coast.  Thus  shut  out  from  their  neighbours  by  mount- 
ains, the  Greeks  were  naturally  attracted  to  the  sea,  and  became  a 
maritime  people.  Hence  they  possessed  the  love  of  freedom  and 
the  spirit  of  adventure,  which  have  always  characterized,  more  ol 
less,  the  inliabitanta  of  maritime  districts. 


Athena  (Minerva)  superintending  the  building  of  the  Argo. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ORIGIN   OF   THE   GREEKS    AND   THE   UEROIC    AGE. 

No  nation  possesses  a  liistoiy  till  events  are  recorded  in  written 
(locnmcnts  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  epoch  known  by  the  name  of  the 
First  Olympiad,  corresponding  to  tlic  year  77G  n.c,  that  the  Greeks 
began  to  em))loy  writing  as  a  means  for  perpetnating  the  memory 
of  any  historical  facts.  Before  that  period  everything  is  vagne  and 
nncertain  ;  and  the  exploits  of  the  heroes  related  by  the  poets  must 
not  be  regarded  as  historical  fiicts. 

The  Pelasr/ians  are  nniversally  re])resentcd  as  the  most  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Greece.  They  were  s])read  over  the  Italian  as  well 
as  the  Grecian  peninsula ;  and  the  I'elasgic  language  thus  formed 
the  basis  of  the  Latin  as  well  as  of  the  Greek.  They  were  divided 
into  several  tribes,  of  which  tlie  Hellenes  were  ])r()bably  one  ;  at 
any  rate,  this  ])eople,  who  originally  dwelt  in  the  south  of  Tliessaly, 
gradually  sjiread  over  the  rest  of  Greece.  The  Pelasgians  disap- 
|)eared  before  them,  or  were  incorjiorated  with  them,  and  their  dia- 
lect became  the  language  of  Greece.  The  Hellenes  considered 
themselves  tlic  descendants  of  one  common  ancestor,  Ilellen,  the 
hun  of  Deucalion  and  J'yrrha.  'I'o  Ik-Ucn  were  ascribed  three  sons, 
Dorus,  Xuthus,  and  Jl'^ohis.  ( )f  these  Dorus  and  Tl^^olus  gave  their 
names  to  tho  Dorians  and  yl'Jolians ;  and  Xuthus,  through  his  two 


Chap.  II.  CECROPS  AND  CADMUS.  6 

sons,  Ion  and  Achfcus,  became  the  forefather  of  the  lonians  and 
Achrc'ans.  Thus  the  Greeks  accounted  for  the  ori;;;in  of  the  four 
great  divisions  of  their  race.  The  descent  of  the  Hellenes  from  a 
common  ancestor,  Hellen,  was  a  fundamental  article  in  the  popular 
faith.  It  was  a  general  practice  in  antiquity  to  invent  fictitious 
persons  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  names  of  which  the  origin  was 
buried  in  obscurity.  It  was  in  this  way  that  Hellen  and  his  sons 
came  into  being ;  but  though  they  never  had  any  real  existence,  the 
tales  about  them  may  be  regarded  as  the  traditional  history  of  the 
races  to  whom  they  gave  their  names. 

The  civilization  of  the  Greeks  and  the  development  of  their  lan- 
guage bear  all  the  marks  of  home  grovv^th,  and  probably  were  lit- 
tle affected  by  foreign  influence.  The  traditions,  however,  of  the 
Greeks  would  point  to  a  contrary  conclusion.  It  was  a  general 
belief  among  them  that  the  Pelasgians  were  reclaimed  from  bar- 
barism by  Oriental  strangers,  who  settled  in  the  countiy  and  intro- 
duced among  the  rude  inhabitants  the  first  elements  of  civilization. 
Attica  is  said  to  have  been  indebted  for  the  arts  of  civilized  life  to 
Cecrops,  a  native  of  Sais  in  Egypt.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  found- 
ation of  the  city  of  Athens,  the  institution  of  marriage,  and  the 
introduction  of  I'eligious  rites  and  ceremonies,  Argos,  in  like 
manner,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Egj'ptian  Danaus, 
who  fled  to  Greece  with  his  fifty  daughters,  to  escape  from  the  per- 
secution of  their  suitoi's,  the  fifty  sons  of  his  brother  ^gyptus. 
The  Eg}T)tian  stranger  was  elected  king  by  the  natives,  and  from 
him  the  tribe  of  the  Danai  derived  their  name,  which  Homer  fre- 
quently uses  as  a  general  appellation  for  the  Greeks.  Another 
colony  was  the  one  led  from  Asia  by  Pelops,  from  whom  the  south- 
em  peninsula  of  Greece  derived  its  name  of  Peloponnesus.  Pelops 
is  represented  as  a  Phrygian,  and  the  son  of  the  wealthy  king  Tan- 
talus. He  became  king  of  Mycenoe,  and  the  founder  of  a  ]X)werful 
dynasty,  one  of  the  most  renowned  in  the  Heroic  age  of  Greece. 
From  him  was  descended  Agamemnon,  who  led  the  Grecian  host 
against  Troy. 

The  tale  of  the  Phoenician  colony,  conducted  by  Cadmus,  and 
which  founded  Thebes  in  Baotia,  rests  upon  a  different  basis. 
Whether  there  was  such  a  person  as  the  Phoenician  Cadmus,  and 
whether  he  built  the  town  called  Cadmea,  which  afterwards  became 
the  citadel  of  Thebes,  as  the  ancient  legends  relate,  cannot  be  de- 
termined ;  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Greeks  were  indebted  to  the 
Phoenicians  for  the  art  of  writing ;  for  both  the  names  and  the 
forms  of  the  letters  in  the  Greek  alphabet  are  evidently  derived 
from  the  Phoenician.  With  this  exception  the  Oriental  strangers 
left  no  permanent  traces  of  their  settlements  in  Greece ;  and  tho 


6  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  CiiAr.  IL 

population  of  tlie  countiy  continued  to  be  essentially  Grecian,  nn- 
contaminated  by  any  foreign  element. 

The  age  of  the  heroes,  from  the  first  apj)earance  of  the  Hellenes 
in  Thessaly  to  the  return  of  the  Greeks  from  Troy,  v,'iis  su]iposed 
to  be  a  period  of  about  two  hundred  years.  These  heroes  -were  be- 
lieved to  be  a  noble  race  of  beings,  possessing  a  superhuman  though 
not  a  divine  nature,  and  superior  to  ordinary  men  in  strength  of 
body  and  greatness  of  soul. 

Among  the  heroes  three  stand  conspicuously  forth :  Hercules,  the 
national  hero  of  Greece ;  Theseus,  the  hero  of  Attica ;  and  Minos, 
king  of  Crete,  the  principal  founder  of  Grecian  law  and  civilization, 

Hercules  was  the  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Alcmena ;  but  the 
jealous  anger  of  Hera  (Juno)  raised  up  against  him  an  opponent 
and  a  master  in  the  person  of  Eurj'stheus,  at  whose  bidding  the 
greatest  of  all  heroes  was  to  achieve  those  wonderful  labours  which 
fdled  tlie  whole  world  with  his  fame.  In  these  are  realized,  on  a 
magnificent  scale,  the  two  great  objects  of  ancient  heroism,  the  de- 
struction of  physical  and  moral  evil,  and  the  acquisition  of  wealth 
and  power.  Such,  for  instance,  are  the  labours  in  which  he  de- 
stroys the  terrible  Nemean  lion  and  Lernean  hydra,  carries  off  tlio 
girdle  of  Ares  from  Ilipjiolyte,  queen  of  the  Amazons,  and  seizes 
the  golden  apples  of  the  Hesperides,  guarded  by  a  hundred-headed 
dragon. 

Theseus  was  a  son  of  -^gcus;  king  of  Athens,  and  of  iEthra, 
daughter  of  Pittlieus,  king  of  Troezen.  Among  his  many  memora- 
ble achievements  the  most  famous  was  his  deliverance  of  Athens 
from  the  frightful  tribute  imposed  upon  it  by  Minos  for  the  murder 
of  his  son.  This  consisted  of  seven  youths  and  seven  maidens, 
whom  the  Athenians  were  compelled  to  send  every  nine  years  to 
Crete,  there  to  be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur,  a  monster  with  a  hu- 
man body  and  a  bull's  head,  which  Minos  kept  concealed  in  an  in- 
extricable labyrinth.  The  third  ship  was  already  on  the  point  of 
nailing  with  its  cargo  of  innocent  victims,  when  Theseus  otfored  to 
go  witb  them,  bo]ting  to  ])ut  an  end  for  ever  to  the  horrible  tribute. 
Ariadne,  the  daughter  of  Minos,  became  enamoured  of  the  hero, 
and  liaving  supplied  him  with  a  chie  to  ti*ace  the  windings  of  the 
Libyrintli,  Theseus  succeeded  in  killing  the  monster,  and  in  track- 
ing his  way  out  of  tlie  mazy  lair.  Theseus,  on  his  return,  became 
king  of  Attica,  and  i)roceeded  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  future 
greatness  of  the  country.  He  united  into  one  political  body  the 
twelve  inde])cndent  states  into  which  Cecrops'had  divided  Attica, 
and  made  Athens  tlie  ca]>ital  of  the  new  kingdom.  He  then  di- 
vided the  citizens  into  three  classes,  namely,  Kiijnttr'uLv,  or  nobles; 
Gcomorif  or  husbandmen  ;  and  Jjcmlurgiy  or  artisans. 


Chap.  II.  THE  AKGONAUTS.  1 

Minos,  king  of  Crete,  whose  history  is  connected  with  that  of 
Theseus,  appears,  like  him,  tlie  representative  of  an  historical  and 
civil  state  of  life.  Minos  is  said  to  have  received  the  laws  of  Creto 
immediately  from  Zeus ;  and  traditions  uniformly  present  him  as 
king  of  the  sea.  Possessing  a  numerous  fleet,  he  reduced  the  sur- 
rounding islands,  especially  the  Cyclades,  under  his  dominion,  and 
cleared  the  sea  of  pirates. 

The  voyage  of  the  Argonauts  and  the  Trojan  war  were  the  most 
memorable  enterprises  undertaken  by  collective  bodies  of  heroes. 

The  Argonauts  derived  their  name  from  the  Argo,  a  ship  built 
for  the  adventurers  by  Jason,  under  the  superintendence  of  Athena 
(Minerv'a).  They  embarked  in  the  harbour  of  lolcus  in  Thessaly 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  golden  fleece  which  was  preserved 
in  ^a  in  Colchis,  en  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  under  the 
guardianship  of  a  sleepless  dragon.  The  most  renowned  heroes  of 
the  age  took  part  in  the  expedition.  Among  them  were  Hercules 
and  Theseus,  as  well  as  the  principal  leaders  in  the  Trojan  war ; 
but  Jason  is  the  central  figure  and  the  real  hero  of  the  enterprise. 
Upon  arriving  at  ^a,  after  many  adventures,  King  iEetes  promised 
to  deliver  to  Jason  the  golden  fleece,  provided  he  yoked  two  flre- 
breathing  oxen  with  brazen  feet,  and  performed  other  Avonderful 
deeds.  Here,  also,  as  in  the  legend  of  Theseus,  love  played  a  prom- 
inent part.  Lledea,  the  daughter  of  iEetes,  who  was  skilled  in 
magic  and  supernatural  arts,  furnished  Jason  with  the  means  of 
accomplishing  the  labours  imposed  upon  him ;  and  as  her  fathei' 
still  delayed  to  surrender  the  fleece,  she  cast  the  dragon  asleep  dur- 
ing the  night,  seized  the  fleece,  and  sailed  away  in  the  Argo  with 
her  beloved  Jason. 

•  The  Trojan  war  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  heroic  achievements. 
It  formed  the  subject  of  innumerable  epic  poems,  and  has  been  im- 
mortalized by  the  genius  of  Homer.  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of 
Troy,  abused  the  hospitality  of  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  by  carry- 
ing oif  his  wife  Helen,  the  most  beautiful  woman  of  the  age.  Ail 
the  Grecian  princes  looked  upon  the  outrage  as  one  committed 
against  themselves.  Kesponding  to  the  call  of  Menelaus,  they  as- 
sembled in  arms,  elected  his  brother  Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenro, 
leader  of  the  expedition,  and  sailed  across  the  ^gean  in  nearly 
twelve  hundred  ships  to  recover  the  faithless  fair  one.  Several  of 
the  confederate  heroes  excelled  Agamemtjon  in  fame.  Among 
them  Achilles,  chief  of  the  Thessalian  MyrVnidons,  stood  pre-emi- 
nent in  strength,  beauty,  and  valour ;  whilst  Ulysses,  king  of  Ith- 
aca, surpassed  all  the  rest  in  the  mental  qualities  of  counsel  and 
eloquence.  Among  the  Trojans,  Hector,  one  of  the  sons  of  Priam, 
was  most  distinguished  for  heroic  qualities,  and  formed  a  striking 


8  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  II. 

conti-ast  to  his  handsome  but  effeminate  brother  Paris.  Next  to 
Hector  in  valour  stood  JEneas,  son  of  Anchises  and  Aplirodite 
(Venus).  Even  the  gods  took  part  in  the  contest,  encouraging 
their  favourite  heroes,  and  sometimes  lighting  by  their  side  or  in 
their  stead. 

It  was  not  till  the  tenth  year  of  the  war  that  Troy  yielded  to  the 
inevitable  decree  of  fate  ;  and  it  is  this  year  which  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  the  Iliad.  Achilles,  offended  by  Agamemnon,  abstains  from 
the  war;  and  in  his  absence  tlie  Greeks  are  no  match  for  Hector. 
The  Trojans  drive  them  back  into  their  camp,  and  are  already  set- 
ting fire  to  their  ships,  when  Achilles  gives  his  armour  to  his  friend 
Patroclus,  and  allows  him  to  charge  at  the  head  of  the  Mymiidons. 
Patrocltis  repulses  the  Trojans  from  the  shij)s,  but  the  god  Apollo 
is  against  him,  and  he  falls  under  tlie  spear  of  Hector.  Desire  to 
avenge  the  death  of  his  friend  proves  more  powerful  in  the  breast 
of  Achilles  than  anger  against  Agamemnon.  He  appears  again 
in  tlie  field  in  new  and  gorgeous  armour,  forged  for  him  by  the  god 
Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  at  the  prayer  of  Thetis.  The  Trojans  fly  be- 
fore him,  and,  although  Achilles  is  aware  that  his  own  death  must 
speedily  follow  that  of  the  Trojan  hero,  he  slays  Hector  in  single 
combat. 

The  Iliad  closes  witli  the  burial  of  Hector.  The  death  of  Achil- 
les and  tlie  ca])ture  of  Troy  Avere  related  in  later  poems.  The  hero 
of  so  many  achievements  perishes  by  an  arrow  shot  by  the  unwar- 
like  Paris,  but  directed  by  the  hand  of  Apollo.  The  noblest  com- 
liatants  had  now  fallen  on  either  side,  and  force  of  amis  had  proved 
unable  to  accomi)lish  what  stratagem  at  length  effects.  It  is  Ulys« 
ses  who  now  stejjs  into  the  foreground  and  becomes  the  real  con- 
queror of  Troy.  By  his  advice  a  wooden  horse  is  built,  in  Avhose 
inside  he  and  other  heroes  conceal  themselves.  The  in&ituated 
Trojans  admit  the  horse  within  their  walls.  In  the  dead  of  night 
the  Greeks  rush  out  and  ojien  the  gates  to  their  comrades.  Troy 
is  delivered  over  to  the  sword,  and  its  glory  sinks  in  ashes.  The 
fall  of  Troy  is  placed  in  the  year  1184  B.C. 

The  return  of  the  Grecian  leaders  from  Troy  forms  another  series 
of  i)oetical  legends.  Several  meet  with  tragical  ends.  Agamem- 
non is  murdered,  on  his  arrival  at  Myccua',  by  his  wife  Clyta-nme*!- 
tra  and  her  ]>aramour  uEgisthus.  IJut  vt'  these  wantlcriugs  the 
most  celebrated  and  interesting  are  those  of  Ulys.ses,  which  form 
the  subject  of  the  Odvssev.  After  Iwentv  vears'  absence  lie  ar- 
rives  at  length  in  Ithaca,  where  he  slays  the  numerous  suitors  who 
devoured  his  substance  and  contended  fur  the  hand  t)f  his  wife  Po- 
nd (ii)e. 

Tlie  Homeric  noenis  must  not  be  regarded  as  a  record  of  histori* 


Chap.  IL       SOCiETY  OF  THE  HEROIC  AGE.  9 

cal  persons  and  events,  but,  at  the  same  time,  tliey  present  a  valua- 
ble picture  of  the  institutions  and  manners  of  the  earliest  known 
state  of  Grecian  society. 

In  the  Homeric  age  Greece  was  already  divided  into  a  number 
of  independent  states,  each  governed  by  its  own  king.  The  author- 
ity of  the  king  was  not  limited  by  any  laws ;  his  power  resembled 
that  of  the  patriarchs  in  the  Old  Testament ;  and  for  the  exercise 
of  it  he  was  responsible  only  to  Zeus,  and  not  to  his  people.  Bu« 
though  the  king  was  not  restrained  in  the  exercise  of  his  power  b}r 
any  positive  laws,  his  authority  was  practically  limited  by  the  Bon/e, 
or  council  of  chiefs,  and  the  Agora,  or  general  assembly  of  freemen. 
These  two  bodies,  of  little  account  in  the  Heroic  age,  became  in  the 
Republican  age  the  sole  depositories  of  political  power. 

The  Greeks  in  the  Heroic  age  were  divided  into  the  three  classes 
of  nobles,  common  freemen,  and  slaves.  The  nobles  were  raised 
far  above  the  rest  of  the  community  in  honour,  power,  and  wealth. 
They  were  distinguished  by  their  warlike  prowess,  their  large  es- 
tates, and  their  numerous  slaves.  The  condition  of  the  general 
mass  of  freemen  is  rarely  mentioned.  They  possessed  portions  of 
laftd  as  their  own  property,  which  they  cultivated  themselves ;  but 
there  was  another  class  of  poor  freemen,  called  Thetes,  who  had  no 
land  of  their  own,  and  who  worked  for  hire  on  the  estates  of  others. 
Slavery  was  not  so  prevalent  in  the  Heroic  age  as  at  a  later  time, 
and  appears  in  a  less  odious  aspect.  The  nobles  alone  possessed 
slaves,  and  they  treated  them  with  a  degree  of  kindness  which  fre- 
quently secured  for  the  master  their  affectionate  attachment. 

Society  was  marked  by  simplicity  of  manners.  The  kings  and 
nobles  did  not  consider  it  derogatory  to  their  dignity  to  acquire 
skill  in  the  manual  arts.  Ulysses  is  represented  as  building  his 
own  bedchamber  and  constructing  his  own  raft,  and  he  boasts  of 
being  an  excellent  mower  and  ploughman.  Like  Esau,  who  made 
savoury  meat  for  his  father  Isaac,  the  Heroic  chiefs  pre])ared  their 
own  meals  and  prided  themselves  on  their  skill  in  cookery.  Kings 
and  private  persons  partook  of  the  same  food,  which  Avas  of  tlie 
simplest  kind.  Beef,  mutton,  and  goat's  flesh  were  the  ordinary 
meats,  and  cheese,  flour,  and  sometimes  fruits,  also  formed  part  of 
the  banquet ;  Avine  was  drunk  diluted  with  water,  and  the  enter- 
tainments were  never  disgraced  by  intemperance,  like  those  of  our 
northern  ancestors.  The  enjoyment  of  the  banquet  was  heightcne<l 
by  the  song  and  the  dance,  and  the  chiefs  took  more  deliglit  in  the 
lays  of  the  minstrel  than  in  the  exciting  influence  of  tlie  wine. 

The  Avives  and  daughters  of  the  chiefs,  in  like  manner,  did  not 
deem  it  beneath  them  to  discharge  various  duties  which  were  after- 
wards regarded  as  menial.     Not  only  do  we  find  tliem  constantly 


10 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  [ 


employed  in  weaving,  spinning,  and  embroider}',  but  like  the  daugh- 
ters of  the  patriarclis  they  fctcli  water  from  the  well  and  assist  their 
slaves  in  washing  garmeiats  in  tlie  river. 

Even  at  this  early  age  the  Greeks  had  made  considerable  ndvauccs 
in  civilization.  They  were  collected  in  fortified  towns,  which  were 
surrounded  by  walls  and  adorned  with  palaces  and  temples.  The 
massive  ruins  of  Mycena;  and  the  sculptured  lions  on  the  gate  of 
this  city  belong  to  the  Heroic  age,  and  still  excite  the  wonder  of  the 
beholder.  Commerce,  however,  was  little  cultivated,  and  was  not 
much  esteemed.  It  was  deemed  more  honourable  for  a  man  to  en- 
rich himself  by  robbery  and  jiiracy  than  by  the  arts  of  peace.  Coin- 
ed money  is  not  mentioned  in  the  poems  of  Homer.  AVhether  the 
Greeks  were  acquainted  at  this  early  period  with  tlie  art  of  writing 
is  a  question  which  has  given  rise  to  much  disimte,  and  must  re- 
main undetermined  ;  but  poetry  was  cultivated  with  success,  though 
yet  confined  to  e))ic  strains,  or  the  narration  of  the  exploits  and  ad- 
ventures of  the  Heroic  chiefs.  The  bard  sung  his  own  song,  and 
was  always  received  with  welcome  and  honour  in  tlie  palaces  of  the 
nobles. 

In  the  battles,  as  depicted  by  Homer,  the  chiefs  are  the  only  im- 
portant combatants,  while  the  peoi)le  are  an  almost  useless  mass, 
freciricntly  put  to  rout  by  the  prowess  of  a  single  hero.  The  chief 
is  mounted  in  a  war  chariot,  and  stands  by  the  side  of  his  chariot* 
eer,  who  is  frequently  a  friend. 


Greek  chariot. 


Head  of  Olympian  Zous  (Jupiter). 


CHAPTER  III. 

GENERAL    ST7RVET   OF   THE    GREEK   PEOPLE- 
INSTITUTIONS. 


-NATIONAL 


The  Greeks,  as  yve  have  already  seen,  were  divided  into  manj 
independent  communities,  but  several  causes  bound  them  togethci 
as  one  people.  Of  these  the  most  important  Avere  community  of 
blood  and  language — community  of  religious  rites  and  festivals— 
and  community  of  manners  and  character. 

All  the  Greeks  were  descended  from  the  same  ancestor  and  spoke 
the  same  language.  They  all  described  men  and  cities  Avhich  were 
not  Grecian  by  the  term  barbarian.  This  word  has  passed  into  our 
own  language,  but  with  a  very  different  idea ;  for  the  Greeks  applied 
it  indiscriminately  to  every  foreigner,  to  the  civilized  inhabitants  of 
Egy]jt  and  Persia,  as  well  as  to  the  rude  tribes  of  Scythia  and  Gaul. 

The  second  bond  of  union  was  a  community  of  religious  rites  and 
festivals.  Prom  the  earliest  times  the  Greeks  apj5Eirr'to  have  wor- 
shipped the  same  gods  ;  but  originally  there  were  no  religious  meet- 
ings common  to  the  whole  nation.  Such  meetings  were  of  gradual 
growth,  being  formed  by  a  numbc]*  of  neighbouring  towns,  which 
entered  into  an  association  for  the  periodical  celebration  of  certain 
religious  rites.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated  was  tha  Amphictyonic 
Council.  It  acquired  its  superiority  over  other  similar  associations 
by  the  wealth  and  gi'andour  of  the  Delphian  temple,  of  wliich  it  was 
the  appointed  guardian.  It  held  two  meetings  every  year,  one  in 
the  spring  at  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  the  other  in  tlia 


12 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  III. 


autuniTi  nt  the  temple  of  Demeter  (Ceres)  at  Tliermopylos.  Its 
members,  wlio  were  called  the  Amphictyons,  consisted  of  sacred  dej)- 
iities  sent  from  twelve  tribes,  each  of  which  contained  several  inde- 
pendent cities  or  states.  But  the  Council  was  never  considered  as 
a  national  congress,  whose  duty  it  was  to  i)rotect  and  defend  the 
common  interests  of  Greece,*  and  it  was  only  when  the  rights  of 
the  Delphian  god  had  been  Aiolatcd  that  it  invoked  the  aid  of  the 
rarious  members  of  tlie  league. 


The  foot-nicc. 


The  Olympic  games  were  of  greater  efficacy  than  the  Amphic- 
tyonic  Council  in  promoting  a  spirit  of  union  among  the  various 
branches  of  the  Greek  race,  and  in  keeping  alive  a  feeling  of  their 
common  origin.  They  were  open  to  all  ])ersons  who  could  prove 
their  Hellenic  blood,  and  were  frequented  by  spectators  from  all 
parts  of  the  Grecian  world.  Tliey  were  celebrated  at  Olympia,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Alpheus,  in  the  territory  of  Elis.     The  origin  of 


Wrcstlinpc. 


CUAP.    III. 


NATIONAL  FESTIVALS. 


13 


the  festival  was  lost  in  obscurity;  but  it  is  saici  to  have  been  revivea 

by  Iphitus,  king  of  Elis, 
and  Lycurgus  the  Spar- 
tan legislator,  in  the  year 
77G  15. c.  ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, when  the  Greeks 
at  a  later  time  began  to 
use  the  Olympic  contest 
as  a  chronological  era, 
this  year  was  regarded  as 
the  first  Olympiad.  It 
was  celebrated  at  the 
end  of  every  four  years, 
and  the  interval  which 
elapsed  between  each  cel- 
ebration was  called  an 
Olympiad.  The  whole 
festival  was  under  the 
management  of  the  Eleans,  who  appointed  some  of  their  own  num- 
ber to  preside  as  judges,  under  the  name  of  the  Hellanodicaj.  Dur- 
ing the  month  in  Avhich  it  was  celebrated  all  hostilities  were  sus- 
pended throughout  Greece.  At  first  the  festival  was  confined  to  a 
single  day,  and  consisted  of  nothing  more  than  a  match  of  runners 
in  the  stadium ;  but  in  course  of  time  so  many  other  contests  were 
introduced,  that  the  games  occupied  five  days.  They  comprised 
various  trials  of  strength  and  skill,  such  as  wrestling,  boxing,  the 
Pancratium  (boxing  and  wrestling  combined),  and  the  complicated 
Pentathlum  (including  jumping,  running,  the  quoit,  the  javelin,  and 
wrestling), but  no  combats  with  any  kind  of  weapons.     There  were 


the  ja^'clin. 


Boxing. 


14 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


CiiAP.  in. 


also  horse-races  and  chariot-races ;  and  the  chariot-race,  with  fouf 
full-grown  horses,  beciune  one  of  the  most  ])oi)ular  and  celebrated 
of  all  the  matches. 

The  only  })rize  given  to  the  conqueror  was  a  garland  of  wild 
olive;  but  this  was  valued  as  one  of  the  dearest  distinctions  in  life. 
To  have  his  name  proclaimed  as  victor  before  assembled  Ilcllas  was 
an  object  of  ambition  witli  the  noblest  and  the  wealthiest  of  the 
Greeks.  Such  a  person  was  considered  to  have  conferred  everlast- 
ing glory  upon  his  family  and  his  country,  and  was  rewarded  by  his 
fellow-citizens  with  distinguished  honours. 


Isthmian  crowns. 

During  the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian  era  three  other 
national  festivals — the  Py^thian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian  games — 
Avhich  were  at  first  only  local,  became  oi)cn  to  the  whole  nation. 
Tlie  Pythian  games  were  celebrated  in  every  third  01ym])ic  year, 
on  the  Cirrhrean  ])lain  in  Phocis,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Am])hictyons.  The  games  consisted  not  only  of  matches  in  gym- 
nastics and  of  horse  and  chariot  races,  but  also  of  contests  in  music 
and  poetry.  They  soon  acquired  celebrity,  and  became  second  only 
to  the  great  01ymi)ic  festival.  The  Nemean  and  Isthmian  games 
occurred  more  frequently  tlinn  tlie  Olymjiic  and  IVthian.  They 
were  ccle!)rated  once  in  tA\o  years — the  Xcmean  in  the  valley  of 
Nemca  between  Phlius  and  Cleonaa — and  the  Isthmian  by  the  Co- 
rinthians, on  their  isthmus,  in  honour  of  Poseidon  (Nci)tune).  As 
in  the  Pythian  festival,  contests  in  music  and  in  poetry,  as  well  as 
gA'mnastics  and  cliariot-races,  formed  part  of  these  games.  Althou^ih 
the  four  great  festivals  of  which  we  have  been  speaking  had  no  in- 
fluence in  i>romoting  the  political  union  of  Greece,  they  nevertheless 
were  of  great  importance  in  making  the  various  sections  of  the  race 
feci  that  they  were  all  members  of  one  family,  and  in  cementing 
tliem  together  by  common  sympathies  and  the  enjoyment  of  com- 
mon pleasures.  The  frecjuent  occurrence  of  tliese  festivals,  for  one 
was  celebrated  every  year,  tended  to  the  same  result. 


Chap.  III. 


THE  DELPHIAN  ORACLE. 


U 


The  Greeks  were  thus  annually  reminded  of  their  common  origin, 
and  of  the  great  distinction  Avhich  existed  between  tliem  and  bar- 
barians. Nor  must  avc  forget  tlie  incidental  advantages  which  at- 
tended them.  The  concourse  of  so  large  a  number  of  persons  from 
every  part  of  the  Grecian  world  afforded  to  the  merchant  o])i)ortuni- 
ties  for  traffic,  and  to  the  artist  and  tlie  literary  man  tlie  best  means 
of  making  their  work  knoAvn.  During  the  time  of  the  games  a 
busy  commerce  Avas  carried  on  ;  and  in  a  spaciovis  hall  appropriated 
for  tlie  purpose,  the  poets,  philosophers,  and  historians  were  accus- 
tomed to  read  their  most  recent  works. 

The  habit  of  consulting  the  same  oracles  in  order  to  ascertain 
the  Avill  of  the  gods  was  another  bond  of  union.  It  was  the  uni- 
versal practice  of  the  Greeks  to  undertake  no  matter  of  importance 
without  first  asking  the  advice  of  the  gods ;  and  there  were  many 
sacred  spots  in  which  the  gods  were  always  ready  to  give  an  answer 
to  pious  worshippers.  The  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  surpassed 
all  the  rest  in  importance,  and  Avas  regarded  with  veneration  in 
every  part  of  the  Grecian  world.  In  the  centre  of  the  temple  of 
Delphi  there  was  a  small  opening  in  the  ground  from  which  it 
was  said  that  a  certain  gas  or  vapour  ascended. 
Whenever  the  oracle  was  to  be  consulted,  a  vir- 
gin priestess  called  Ptjthia  took  her  seat  upon  a 
tripod  which  was  placed  over  the  chasm.  The 
ascending  vapour  affected  her  brain,  and  the 
words  which  she  uttered  in  this  excited  condi- 
tion were  believed  to  be  the  answer  of  Apollo  to 
his  worshippers.  They  were  always  in  hexameter 
verse,  and  were  reverently  taken  down  by  the 
attendant  priests.  IVIost  of  the  answers  were 
equivocal  or  obscure ;  but  the  credit  of  the  oracle 
continued  unimpaired  long  after  the  downfall  of 
Grecian  independence. 

A  further  element  of  union  among  the  Greeks 
was  the  similarity  of  manners  and  character.  It 
is  true  tlie  difference  in  tliis  respect  between 
the  polished  inhabitants  of  Athens  and  the  rude 
mountaineers  of  Acarnania  was  marked  and  strik- 
ing ,  but  if  we  compare  the  two  with  foreign  ccri- 
temporaries,  the  contrast  between  thein  and  the  latter  is  still  more 
striking.  Absolute  despotism,  human  sacrifices,  polygamy,  delib- 
erate mutilation  of  the  person  as  a  punishment,  and  selling  of 
children  into  slavery,  existed  in  some  part  or  other  of  the  bar- 
barian world,  but  are  not  found  in  any  city  of  Greece  in  the  his- 
torical times. 


dJ 


KP 


^-b 


Tripod  of  Apollo 
at  DelpliL 


IG 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  III. 


The  elements  of  union  of  \vljicli  we  have  been  spcnkinp;  only 

-—  bound  tlie  Greeks 
J  \  together  in  ccni- 
nion  feelings  and 
sentiments:  they 
never  ])rcduced 
any  political  un- 
ion. The  inde- 
pendent sover- 
eign  of  each  city 
w as  a  f u n d a - 
mental  notion  in 
the  Greek  niiifd. 
This  strongly 
rooted  feeling  de- 
serves j'articular 
notice.  Careless 
readers  of  histo- 
ly  are  temjtted 
to  suppose  that 
the  territory  of 
Greece  was  di- 
vided among  a 
c  o  m  ])  a  r  a  t  i  V  c  - 
ly  small  nund)er 
of  inde]itndent 
states,  such  as 
Attica,  Arcadia, 
Ba?otia,  I'hocis, 
Locris,  and  the 
like;  but  this  isii 
most  serious  mis- 
take, and  leads  to 
a  total  misa]'})rc- 
licnsion  of  Greek 
history.  Every 
sejjarate  city  was 
usually  an  in- 
dependent state, 

and  consequcnily  eacli  of  the  territories  described  under  tlic  general 
names  of  Arcadia,  Bicotia,  Tliocis,  and  Locris,  cemtaincd  numerous 
jKjIitical  communities  independent  of  one  another.  Attica,  it  is 
true,  formed  a  single  state,  and  its  dilVerent  towns  rcce)gnizcd  Athens 
as  tlieir  capital  and  the  soure-c  of  supreme  power;  but  this  is  an  cx- 
rcption  to  tlio  general  rule. 


Apollo,  the  priuciiJiil  ueity  of  the  Dorians, 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EARLY  UISTORY   OF   PELOPONNESUS   AND    SPARTA,  DO'WN   TO  TSM 
END    or    THE   MESSENIAN   WARS,  B.C.  GG8. 

In  the  heroic  age  Peloponnesus  was  occupied  by  tribes  of  Dorian 
conquerors.  They  had  no  share  in  the  glories  of  the  Heroic  age ; 
their  name  does  not  occur  in  the  Iliad,  and  they  are  only  once  men- 
tioned in  the  Odyssey ;  but  they  were  destined  to  form  in  historical 
times  one  of  the  most  important  elements  of  the  Greek  nation.  Is* 
suing  from  their  mountain  district  between  Thessaly,  Locris,  and 
Phocis,  they  overran  the  greater  part  of  Peloponnesus,  destroyed 
the  ancient  Achaean  monarchies,  and  expelled  or  reduced  to  subjec- 
tion the  original  inliabitants  of  the  land,  of  which  they  became  the 
undisputed  masters.  This  brief  statement  contains  all  that  we  know 
for  certain  respecting  this  celebrated  event,  which  the  ancient  writers 
placed  eighty  years  after  the  Trojan  war  (b.c.  1104).  The  legend- 
ary account  of  the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus  ran  as  follows  : — The 
Dorians  were  led  by  the  Heraclidai,  or  descendants  of  the  mighty 
hero  Hercules.  Hence  this  migration  is  called  the  Return  of  tho 
Heraclidaj.  The  children  of  Hercules  had  long  been  fugitives  upon 
the  face  of  the  earth.  They  had  made  many  attempts  to  regain 
possession  of  the  dominions  in  the  Peloponnesus,  of  which  their 
great  sire  had  been  deprived  by  Euiystheus,  but  hitherto  without 

B 


•  lip  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  IV. 

success.  In  tlicir  last  attcrnpt  Ilyllus,  the  son  of  Hercules,  had 
perished  in  single  combat  with  Echemus  of  Togca;  and  tlie  Ilerac- 
lidaj  had  become  bound  by  a  solemn  comi)act  to  renounce  their  en- 
terprise for  a  hundred  years.  Tliis  period  had  now  expired ;  and 
the  groat-grandsons  of  Ilyllus — Tcmenus,  Cresj)hontes,  and  Aristo- 
demr* — resolved  to  make  a  fresh  attempt  to  recover  their  birthright. 
They  were  assisted  in  the  enterprise  by  the  Dorians.  This  jicoijIc 
espoused  their  cause  in  consequence  of  the  aid  Avliich  Hercules  him- 
self had  rendered  to  the  Dorian  king  JEgimius,  when  the  latter  was 
hard  pressed  in  a  contest  with  the  Lapithai.  The  invaders  were 
warned  by  an  oracle  not  to  enter  Pelojionnesus  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth,  but  across  the  mouth  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  The  inhab* 
itants  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  gulf  were  ftxvourable  to  their  en- 
terprise. Oxylus,  king  of  the  JEtolians,  became  their  guide  ;  and 
from  Naupactus  they  crossed  over  to  Peloponnesus.  A  single  bat- 
tle decided  the  contest.  Tisamcnus,  the  son  of  Orestes,  was  defeat- 
ed, and  retired  with  a  portion  of  liis  Acha-an  subjects  to  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Peloponnesus,  then  oecu])ied  by  the  lonians.  He  ex- 
pelled the  lonians,  and  took  possession  of  the  country,  which  con- 
tinued henceforth  to  be  inhabited  by  the  Acha?ans,  and  to  be  called 
after  them.  The  lonians  withdrew  to  Attica,  and  the  greater  part 
©f  them  afterwards  emigrated  to  Asia  Minor. 

The  Ileraclida)  and  the  Dorians  now  divided  between  them  the 
dominions  of  Tisamenus  and  of  the  other  Achaean  princes.  The 
kingdom  of  Elis  was  given  to  Oxylus  as  a  recompense  for  his  serv- 
ices as  their  guide ;  and  it  was  agreed  that  Tcmenus,  Cresphontcs, 
and  Eurysthenes  and  Procles,  the  infant  sons  of  Aristodemus  (^^  ho 
had  died  at  Naupactus),  should  draw  lots  for  Argos,  Sparta,  and 
Messenia.  Argos  fell  to  Tcmenus,  S])arta  to  Euiysthenes  and  Pro- 
cles, and  Messenia  to  Cres])hontcs. 

Sucli  are  the  main  features  of  the  legend  of  the  Return  of  the 
Ileraclida}.  In  order  to  make  the  story  more  striking  and  impress- 
ive, it  compresses  into  a  single  epoch  events  which  ])robably  occu- 
pied several  generations.  It  is  in  itself  improbable  (hat  the  brave 
Achitans  quietly  submitted  to  the  Dorian  invaders  after  a  moment- 
ary struggle.  We  have,  moreover,  many  indications  that  such  was 
not  the  fact,  and  that  it  was  only  gradually  and  after  a  long  ]»ro- 
tracted  contest  tliat  the  Dorians  became  undisi)uted  masters  of  the 
greater  ])art  of  PclojKmnesus, 

Argos  was  originally  the  chief  Dorian  state  in  Peloiionncsns,  but 
at  the  time  of  the  first  Olympiad  its  power  liad  been  sujtplanted  by 
that  of  Si)arta.  The  ]>r()gress  of  8])arta  from  the  second  to  the  first 
place  among-  the  states  in  the  ])eninsula  was  mainly  owing  to  fho 
military  discijiliue  and  rigorous  training  of  its  citizens.      The  sin* 


B.C.  77G.       •      KEFORMS  OF  LYCURGUS.  l6 

gular  constitution  of  Sparta  was  iinanimously  ascribed  by  the  an- 
cients to  the  legislator  Lycurgus,  but  there  were  dilFerent  stories 
respecting  his  date,  birth,  travels,  legislation,  and  death.  His  most 
probable  date,  however,  is  B.C.  776,  in  which  year  he  is  said  to  have 
assisted  Iphitus  in  restoring  the  Olympic  games.  He  was  the  son 
of  Eunomus,  one  of  the  two  kings  who  reigned  together  in  Sparta. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  his  elder  brother,  Polydectes,  succeeded 
to  the  crown,  but  died  soon  afterwards,  leaving  his  queen  with  child. 
The  ambitious  woman  oifered  to  destroy  the  child  if  Lycurgus  would 
share  the  throne  with  her.  Lycurgus  pretended  to  consent ;  but 
as  soon  as  she  had  given  birth  to  a  son,  he  presented  him  in  the 
market-place  as  the  future  king  of  Sparta.  The  young  king's  moth-., 
er  took  revenge  upon  Lycurgus  by  accusing  him  of  entertaining  de- 
signs against  his  nephew's  life.  Hereupon  he  resolved  to  with- 
draw from  his  native  country,  and  to  visit  foreign  lands.  He  was 
absent  many  years,  and  is  said  to  have  emploj^ed  his  time  in  study- 
ing the  institutions  of  other  nations,  in  order  to  devise  a  system  of 
laws  and  regulations  which  might  deliver  Sparta  from  the  evils 
under  which  it  had  long  been  suffering.  During  his  absence  the 
young  king  had  groAvn  up,  and  assumed  the  reins  of  goA^ernment ; 
but  the  disorders  of  the  state  had  meantime  become  worse  than 
ever,  and  all  parties  longed  for  a  termination  to  their  present  suffer- 
ings. Accordingly,  the  return  of  Lycurgus  was  hailed  Avitli  delight, 
and  he  found  the  people  ready  and  willing  to  submit  to  an  entire 
change  in  their  government  and  institutions.  He  now  set  himself 
to  work  to  carry  his  long  projected  reforms  into  effect ;  but  before 
he  commenced  his  arduous  task  he  consulted  the  Delpliian  oracle, 
from  wliicli  he  received  strong  assurances  of  divine  support.  Thus 
encouraged  by  the  god,  he  suddenly  presented  himself  in  the  market- 
place, surrounded  by  thirty  of  the  most  distinguished  Spartans  in 
arms.  His  reforms  were  not  carried  into  effect  without  A'iolent  op- 
position, and  in  one  of  the  tumults  which  they  excited,  his  eye  is 
said  to  have  been  struck  out  by  a  passionate  youth.  But  he  finally 
triumphed  over  all  obstacles,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  sub- 
mission of  all  classes  in  the  community  to  his  new  constitution. 
His  last  act  vvas  to  sacrifice  himself  for  the  welfare  of  his  country. 
Having  obtained  from  the  people  a  solemn  oath  to  make  no  altera- 
tions in  his  laws  before  his  return,  he  quitted  Sparta  for  ever.  He 
set  out  on  a  journey  to  Delphi,  where  he  obtained  an  oracle  from 
the  god,  approving  of  all  he  had  done,  and  promising  prosperity  to 
the  Spartans  so  long  as  they  preserved  his  laws.  AV hither  he  went 
afterwards,  and  how  and  where  he  died,  nobody  could  tell.  Ho 
vanished  from  earth  like  a  god,  leaving  no  traces  behind  him  but 
his  spirit ;  and  his  grateful  countrymen  honoured  him  with  a  tem- 


20  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Ciiai-.  IV. 

pie,  and  worshipped  him  with  annual  sacrifices  dovni  to  the  latest 
times. 

The  population  of  Laoonia  was  divided  into  the  three  classes  of 
Spartans,  Periocci,  and  Helots, 

I.  The  Spartans  were  the  descendants  of  the  leading  Dorian 
conquerors.  Tliey  formed  the  sovereign  power  of  the  state,  and 
they  alone  were  eligible  to  honours  and  i)uhlic  offices.  They  lived 
in  Sparta  itself,  and  were  all  subject  to  the  dicipline  of  Lycurgus. 
They  Avere  divided  into  three  tribes — the  IIi//kis,  the  I'anijilif/U, 
and  the  Dijmdncs — whicli  were  not,  however,  peculiar  to  Sparta, 
but  existed  in  all  the  Dorian  states. 

II.  The  Pei'iocci*  were  personally  free,  hut  politically  subject  to 
the  Spartans.  They  possessed  no  share  in  the  government,  and 
were  bound  to  obey  the  commands  of  tlie  Spartan  magisti-atcs. 
They  appear  to  have  been  the  descendants  of  the  old  Achaean  po])U- 
lation  of  the  country,  and  they  were  distributed  into  a  hundred 
townships,  whicli  Avere  spread  through  the  Avliole  of  Laconia. 

HI.  The  Helots  Avere  serfs  bound  to  the  soil,  Avhich  they  tilled 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Spartan  pro]>rietors.  Their  condition  Avas 
very  different  from  that  of  the  ordinary  slaA'es  in  antiquity,  and 
more  similar  to  the  villanage  of  the  Middle  Ages.  '  They  liA'cd  in 
the  rural  villages,  as  the  Perioeci  did  in  the  toAvns,  cultivating  the 
lands  and  paying  OA'cr  the  rent  to  their  masters  in  Sparta,  but  en- 
joying their  homes,  Avives,  and  families,  ai)art  from  their  master's 
personal  superintendence.  They  apj)ear  to  have  been  never  sold,  and 
they  accompanied  the  Spartans  to  the  field  as  light-armed  troops. 
But  Avliile  their  condition  Avas  in  these  rcs])ccts  sui)crior  to  tliat  of 
the  ordinary  shiA'cs  in  otlicr  i)arts  of  Greece,  it  Avas  embittered  by 
the  fact  that  they  Averc  not  strangers  like  the  latter,  but  Avere  of 
the  same  race  and  spoke  the  sanie  language  as  their  masters,  being 
probably  the  descendants  of  the  old  inhabitants,  avIio  had  offered 
the  most  obstinate  resistance  to  the  Dorians,  and  had  tliei'cfore 
been  reduced  to  slaveiy.  As  their  numbers  increased,  they  became 
objects  of  susj)icion  to  their  nuistcrs,  and  Avere  subjected  to  the  most 
Avanton  and  oppressive  cruelty. 

Tiie  functions  of  the  Sjjartan  goA'crnment  were  distributed  among 
two  kiiv'^'s,  .1  senate  of  thirty  m('ml)ers,  a  ])opular  assembly,  and  an 
executive  directory  of  five  men  called  the  J^jdiors. 

At  the  head  of  the  state  were  the  two  hereditary  kings.  The 
existence  of  u  pair  of  kings  Avas  ])eculiar  to  Sparta,  and  is  said  to 
Ikiac  arisen  from  the  accidental  circumstance  of  Aristodemus  hav- 

•  ThiH  word  eignifics  literiiUy  Ihocllcm  around  the  citi'^  an<l  was  pcnonilly 
u^ed  to  in(li(!it(i  tlic  inliiiliitaiits  in  the  country  (li.-itnit!<,  Avho  i>otj;:«ri6Cil  infcii/ 
political  |nivileg<!d  to  the  citizuuH  w1*l)  liviil  in  thu  city. 


B.C.  776.         THE  SPAKTAN  GOVERNMENT.  21 

ing  left  twin  sons,  EurystliCnes  and  Procles.  This  division  of  tho 
royal  power  naturally  tended  to  weaken  its  influence  and  to  ])ro- 
duce  jealousies  and  dissensions  between  the  two  kings.  The  royal 
power  was  on  the  decline  during  the  whole  historical  period,  and 
the  authority  of  the  kings  was  gradually  usurped  by  the  Ephors, 
who  at  length  obtained  the  entire  control  of  the  government,  and 
reduced  the  kings  to  a  state  of  humiliation  and  dependence. 

The  Senate,  called  Gerusia,  or  the  Council  of  Elders,  consisted  of 
thirty  members,  among  whom  the  two  kings  were  included.  They 
were  obliged  to  be  upwards  of  sixty  years  of  age,  and  they  held 
their  office  for  life.  They  possessed  considerable  power,  and  were 
the  only  real  check  upon  the  authority  of  the  Ephors.  They  dis- 
cussed and  prepared  all  measures  which  were  to  be  brought  before 
tlie  popular  assembly,  and  they  had  some  share  in  the  general  ad- 
ministration of  the  state.  But  the  most  important  of  their  func- 
tions was,  that  they  were  jndges  in  all  criminal  cases  affecting  the 
life  of  a  Spartan  citizen. 

The  Popular  Assembly  was  of  little  importance,  and  appears  to 
have  been  usually  summoned  only  as  a  matter  of  form  for  the  elec- 
tion of  certain  magistrates,  for  passing  laws,  and  for  determining 
upon  peace  and  war.  It  would  appear  that  open  discussion  was 
not  allowed,  and  that  the  assembly  rarely  came  to  a  division. 

The  Ephors  were  of  late  origin,  and  did  not  exist  in  the  original 
constitution  of  Lycurgus.  They  may  be  regarded  as  the  represent- 
atives of  the  popular  assembly.  They  were  elected  annually  from 
the  general  body  of  Spartan  citizens,  and  seem  to  have  been  origin- 
ally appointc^d  to  protect  the  interests  and  liberties  of  the"  people 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  kings  and  the  senate.  They  cor- 
respond in  many  respects  to  the  tribunes  of  the  people  at  Home. 
Their  functions  were  at  first  limited  and  of  small  importance ;  but 
in  the  end  the  whole  political  power  became  centred  in  their  hands. 

The  Spartan  government  was  in  reality  a  close  oligarchy,  in 
which  the  kings  and  the  senate,  as  well  as  the  people,  were,  alike 
subject  to  the  irresponsible  authority  of  the  five  Ephors. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  legislation  of  Lycurgus  did  not 
relate  to  the  political  constitution  of  Sparta,  but  to  the  discipline 
and  education  of  the  citizens.  It  was  these  Avhich  gave  Sparta  her 
peculiar  character,  and  distinguished  her  in  so  striking  a  manner 
from  all  the  other  states  of  Greece.  The  position  of  the  Spartans, 
surrounded  by  numerous  enemies,  whom  they  held  in  subjection  by 
the  sword  alone,  compelled  them  to  be  a  nation  of  soldiers.  Ly- 
curgus determined  that  they  should  be  nothing  else ;  and  the  great 
object  of  his  whole  system  was  to  cultivate  a  martial  spirit,  and  to 
give  them  a  training  which  would  make  them  invincible  in  battle. 


22  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  IV. 

To  accomplish  this,  tlic  education  of  a  Spartan  was  phiccd  under  the 
control  of  the  state  from  liis  earliest  boyhood.  Every  child  after 
birth  was  exhibited  to  puldic  view,  and,  if  deemed  deformed  and 
weakly,  was  exposed  to  perisli  on  Mount  Taygtltus.  At  the  age  of 
seven  he  was  taken  from  his  mother's  care,  and  handed  over  to  the 
public  classes.  lie  was  not  only  taught  gymnastic  games  and  mil- 
itary exercises,  but  he  was  also  sulyected  to  severe  bodily  discipline, 
and  was  comi^elled  to  submit  to  hardsliips  and  suifering  without  re- 
pining or  comi)laint.  One  of  the  tests  to  which  he  was  sulyectcd 
was  a  cruel  scourging  at  the  altar  of  Artemis  (Diana),  until  his 
blood  gushed  forth  and  covered  the  altar  of  the  goddess.  It  was 
inflicted  publicly  before  the  eyes  of  his  jiarents  and  in  the  presence 
of  tlic  whole  city ;  and  many  Spartan  youths  were  known  to  have 
died  under  the  lash  without  uttering  a  comjdaining  murmur.  No 
means  were  neglected  to  prepare  them  for  the  hardsliips  and  strata- 
gems of  war.  They  were  obliged  to  wear  the  same  garment  winter 
and  summer,  and  to  endure  hunger  and  thirst,  heat  and  cold. 
They  were  purposely  allowed  an  insufficient  quantity  of  food,  but 
were  permitted  to  make  up  the  deficiency  by  liunting  in  the  woods 
and  mountains  of  Laconia.  They  were  even  encouraged  to  steal 
whatever  they  could;  but  if  they  were  caught  in  the  fact,  they  were 
severely  punished  for  their  want  of  dexterity.  Plutarch  tells  us  of 
a  boy,  Avho,  having  stolen  a  fox,  and  hid  it  under  his  garment,  chose 
rather  to  let  it  tear  out  his  very  bowels  than  be  detected  in  the 
theft. 

The  literaiy  education  of  a  Spartan  youth  was  of  a  most  restrict- 
ed kind.  He  was  taught  to  despise  literature  as  ui^worthy  of  a 
warrior^  while  the  study  of  eloquence  and  philosophy,  whicli  were 
cultivated  at  Athens  with  such  extraordinaiy  success,  was  regard- 
ed at  Sparta  with  contempt.  Long  speeches  were  a  Spartan's  ab- 
horrence, and  he  was  trained  to  cxi)ress  himself  with  sententious 
brevity. 

,  A  Spartan  was  not  considered  to  have  reached  the  full  age  of 
manhood  till  he  had  completed  his  thirtieth  year.  He  was  then  al- 
lowed to  many,  to  take  part  in  the  public  assembly,  and  was  eligi- 
ble to  the  offices  of  the  state.  But  he  still  continued  under  tlie 
public  discipline,  and  was  not  permitted  even  to  reside  and  take  his 
meals  with  his  wife.  It  was  not  till  he  had  reached  his  sixtieth 
year  that  he  was  released  from  the  public  discipline  and  from  mili- 
taiy  service. 

The  public  mess — called  ,'>'/.<isitfa — is  said  to  have  been  instituted 
by  Lycurgus  to  ])revcut  all  indulgence  of  the  appetite.  Public  ta- 
bles were  provided,  at  which  every  male  citizen  was  obliged  to  take 
hia  meals.     Each  table  accommodated  fifteen  persons,  who  formed 


B.C.  776.  THE  SPARTAN  WOMEN.  23 

a  separate  mess,  into  which  no  new  membei'  was  admitted  except 
by  the  iinanimous  consent  of  the  whole  company.  Each  sent 
monthly  to  the  common  stock  a  specified  quantity  of  barley-meal, 
wine,  cheese,  and  figs,  and  a  little  money  to  buy  flesh  and  fish. 
No  distinction  of  any  kind  was  allowed  at  these  frugal  meals. 
Meat  was  only  eaten  occasionally ;  and  one  of  the  principal  dishes 
was  black  broth.  Of  what  it  consisted  we  do  not  know.  The  ty- 
rant Dionysius  found  it  very  unpalatable;  but,  as  the  cook  told 
him,  the  broth  was  nothing  without  the  seasoning  of  fatigiic  and 
hunger. 

The  Spartan  women  in  their  earlier  years  were  subjected  to  a 
course  of  training  almost  as  rigorous  as  that  of  the  men,  and  con- 
tended with  each  other  in  running,  wrestling,  and  boxing.  At  the 
age  of  twenty  a  Spartan  woman  usually  married,  and  she  was  no 
longer  subjected  to  the  public  discipline.  Although  she  enjoyed 
little  of  her  husband's  society,  she  was  treated  by  him  with  deep 
respect,  and  v/as  allowed  a  greater  degree  of  liberty  than  was  toler- 
ated in  other  Grecian  states.  Hence  she  took  a  lively  interest  in  the 
welfare  and  glory  of  her  native  land,  and  was  animated  by  an  earn- 
est and  lofty  spirit  of  patriotism.  The  Spartan  mother  had  reason 
to  be  proud  of  herself  and  of  her  children.  When  a  woman  of  an- 
other country  said  to  Gorgo,  the  wife  of  Leonidas,  "The  Spartan 
women  alone  rule  the  men,"  she  replied,  "The  Spartan  women 
alone  bring  forth  men."  Their  husbands  and  their  sons  were  fired 
by  their  sympathy  to  deeds  of  heroism.  "  Return  either  with  your 
shield,  or  upon  it,"  was  their  exhortation  to  their  sons  when  going 
to  battle. 

Lycurgus  is  said  to  have  divided  the  land  belonging  to  the  Spar- 
tans into  nine  thousand  equal  lots,  and  the  remainder  of  Laconia 
into  thirty  thousand  equal  lots,  and  to  have  assigned  to  each  Spar- 
tan citizen  one  of  the  former  of  these  lots,  and  to  each  Pcrioecus  one 
of  the  latter. 

Neither  gold  nor  silver  money  was  allowed  in  Sparta,  and  nothing 
but  bars  of  iron  passed  in  exchange  for  every  commodity.  As  the 
Spartans  were  not  permitted  to  engage  in  commerce,  and  all  luxuiy 
and  display  in  dress,  furniture,  and  food  Avas  forbidden,  they  had 
■very  little  occasion  for  a  circulating  medium,  and  iron  money  was 
found  sufficient  for  their  few  wants.  But  this  prohibition  of  the 
precious  metals  only  made  the  Spartans  more  anxious  to  obtain 
them ;  and  even  in  the  times  of  their  greatest  glory  the  Spartans 
were  the  most  venal  of  the  Greeks,  and  could  rarely  resist  the  tempt- 
ation of  a  bribe. 

The  legisltition  of  Lycurgus  was  followed  by  important  results. 
It  made  the  Spartans  a  body  of  professional  soldiers,  well  trained 


24  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  IV. 

and  well  disciplined,  at  a  time  wlien  military  training  and  disci- 
l)line  were  little  known,  and  almost  unpractised  in  the  other  states 
of  Greece.  The  consequence  was  tlie  ra])id  p-owth  of  the  political 
power  of  Sparta,  and  the  sulyugation  of  the  neighhouring  states. 
At  the  time  of  Lycurgus  the  Spartans  held  only  a  small  portion  of 
Laconia :  they  were  merely  a  garrison  in  the  heart  of  an  enemy's 
country.  Their  first  object  was  to  make  themselves  masters  of  La- 
conia, in  wliich  they  finally  succeeded  after  a  severe  struggle.  They 
next  turned  their  arms  against  tlic  Messenians,  Arcadians,  and  Ar- 
givcs.  Of  these  wars  the  two  waged  against  Messenia  were  the 
most  celebrated  and  the  most  important.  They  were  lx)th  long 
protracted  and  obstinately  contested.  They  botli  ended  in  the  vic- 
tory of  Sjjarta  and  in  the  subjugation  of  Messenia.  These  facts 
are  beyond  dispute ;  but  of  the  details  wc  have  n©  trustworthy  nar- 
rative. 

Tlic  First  Mcssenian  War  lasted  from  B.C.  743  to  724.  During 
the  first  four  years  the  Laceditmonians  made  little  jn-ogress ;  but 
in  the  fifth  a  great  battle  Avas  fought,  and  although  its  result  was 
indecisive,  the  JNIessenians  did  not  A-enturc  to  risk  another  engage- 
ment, and  retired  to  the  strongly  fortified  mountain  of  Ithome'.  In 
their  distress  they  sent  to  consult  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  and  received 
the  ai)palling  answer  that  the  salvation  of  Messenia  required  the 
sacrifice  of  a  virgin  of  the  royal  house  to  the  gods  of  the  lower 
world.  Aristodemus,  who  is  the  Messenian  hero  of  the  first  war, 
slew  his  own  daughter,  which  so  disheartened  the  Spartans  that 
they  abstained  from  attacking  the  Messenians  for  some  years.  In 
tlic  thirteenth  year  of  the  war  the  S])artan  king  marched  against 
Ithome,  and  a  second  great  battle  was  fought,  but  the  result  was 
again  indecisive.  The  Messenian  king  fell  in  the  action  ;  and  Aris- 
todemus, wlio  was  chosen  king  in  his  place,  prosecuted  the  war 
with  vigour.  In  the  fil'th  year  of  his  reign  a  third  great  battle  was 
fouglit.  This  time  tlie  Messenians  gained  a  decisive  victory,  and 
the  Lacedajmonians  were  driven  back  into  their  own  territory. 
They  now  sent  to  ask  advice  of  the  Delphian  oracle,  and  were  jjroni- 
ised  success  upon  using  stratagem.  They  therefore  had  recourse  to 
fraud  :  and  at  the  same  time  various  ]»rodigics  dismayed  the  bold 
Bpirit  of  Aristodemus.  Ills  daughter  too  ai)pearcd  to  him  in  a 
dream,  sliowcd  him  her  wounds,  and  beckoned  him  away.  Seeing 
that  his  country  was  doomed  to  destruction,  Aristodemus  slew  him- 
pclf  on  his  daugliter's  tomb.  Shortly  afterwards,  in  the  twentieth 
year  of  tlie  war,  the  ]\Iessenians  abandoned  Ithome,  which  the  La- 
cediemonians  razed  to  tlie  ground,  ami  the  whole  country  became 
subject  to  Sparta.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  tied  into  otlier  coun- 
tries;   but  those  who  remained  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of 


B.C.  8G8.      THE  SECOND  MESSENIAN  WAR.  25 

Helots,  and  Avere  compelled  to  pay  to  their  masters  half  of  the  prod- 
uce of  their  lands. 

For  thirty-nine  A^ears  the  Messenians  endured  this  degradins 
yoke.  At  the  end  of  this  time  they  took  up  arms  against  their  op- 
pressors. The  Second  Messenian  War  lasted  from  u.c.  685  to  GG8. 
Its  hero  is  AristomCnes,  whose  wonderful  exjDloits  form  the  great 
subject  of  this  war.  It  would  appear  that  most  of  the  states  in 
Peloponnesus  took  part  in  the  struggle.  The  first  battle  was  fought 
before  the  arrival  of  the  allies  on  either  side,  and,  though  it  was 
indecisive,  the  valour  of  Aristomenes  struck  fear  into  the  hearts  of  the 
Spartans.  To  frighten  the  enemy  still  more,  the  hero  crossed  the 
frontier,  entered  Sparta  by  night,  and  affixed  a  shield  to  the  temple 
of  Athena  (Minerva),  with  the  inscription,  "Dedicated  by  Aristo- 
menes to  the  goddess  from  the  Spartan  spoils."  The  Spartans,  in 
alarm,  sent  to  Delphi  for  advice.  The  god  bade  them  apply  to 
7\thens  for  a  leader.  Fearing  to  disobey  the  oracle,  but  with  the 
viow  of  rendering  no  real  assistance,  the  Athenians  sent  Tyrtaius,  a 
lame  man  and  a  schoolmaster.  The  Spartans  received  their  new 
leader  with  honour ;  and  he  was  not  long  in  justifying  the  credit  of 
the, oracle.  His  martial  songs  roused  their  fainting  courage;  and 
so  efficacious  were  his  poems,  that  to  them  is  mainly  ascribed  the 
final  success  of  the  Spartan  arms. 

Encouraged  by  the  strains  of  Tyrtasus,  the  Spjirtans  again  march- 
ed against  the  Messenians.     But  they  were  not  at  first  successful. 
A  great  battle  was  fought  at  the  Boar's  Grave  in  the  plain  of  Steny- 
clerus,  in  which  they  were  defeated  with  great  loss.     In  the  third 
year  of  the  war  another  great  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  Mes- 
senians suffered  a  signal  defeat.     So  great  was  their  loss,  that  Ar- 
istomenes no  longer  ventured  to  meet  the  Spartans  in  the  open  field. 
Following  the  example  of  the  Messenian  leaders  in  the  former  war, 
he  retired  to  the  mountain  fortress  of  Ira.     The  Spartans  encamp- 
ed at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  ;  but  Aristomenes  frequently  sallied 
from  the  fortress,  and  ravaged  the  lands  of  Laconia  with  fire  and 
sword.     It  is  unnecessary  to  relate  all  the  wonderful  exploits  of 
this  hero  in  his  various  incursions.     Thrice  was  he  taken  prisoner ; 
on  two  occasions  he  burst  his  bonds,  but  on  the  third  he  was  carried 
to  Sparta,  and  thrown  with  his  fifty  companions  into  a  deep  pit, 
called  Ceadas.     His  comrades  were  all  killed  by  the  fall ;  but  Ar- 
istomenes reached  the  bottom  unhurt.     He  saw,  however,  no  means 
of  escape,  and  had  resigned  himself  to  death  ;  but  on  the  third  day 
perceiving  a  fox  creeping  among  the  bodies,  he  grasped  its  tail,  and 
following  the  animal  as  it  struggled  to  escape,  discovered  an  open- 
ing in  the  rock,  and  on  the  next  day  was  at  Ira,  to  the  surprise  alike 
of  friends  and  foes.     But  his  single  prowess  was  not  sufucient  to 


26 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  IV. 


avert  the  niin  of  his  colmtr}^  One  night  the  Spartans  sui7)rised 
Ira  while  Aristomenes  was  disabled  by  a  wound ;  hut  lie  collected 
the  bravest  of  his  followers,  and  forced  his  way  through  the  enemy. 
Many  of  the  JMessenians  went  to  Rhegiuni,  in  Italy,  under  tiie  sons 
of  Aristomenes,  but  the  liero  liimself  finished  his  days  in  Rhodes. 

The  second  Messenian  war  was  terminated  by  the  com])lete  sul)- 
jugation  of  the  Messenians,  who  again  became  the  serfs  of  their 
concjuerors.  In  this  condition  they  remained  till  the  restoration 
of  their  indei)endencc  l)y  Epaminondas,  in  the  year  3G9  n.c.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  of  the  intervening  period  the  Messcniana  disa])]»ear 
from  liistory.  The  country  called  Messenia  in  the  jnap  became  a 
portion  of  Laconia,  which  thus  extended  across  the  soutb  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus from  the  cjistern  to  the  western  sea. 


Ancient  Bridge  in  Laconia. 


Athena  (Minerva),  the  national  deity  of  the  Athenians. 


CHAPTER  V. 
eJlRly  history  of  Athens,  down  to  the  establishment  or 

DEMOCKACY   BY    CLISTHENES,  B.C.  510. 

Sparta  was  the  only  state  in  Greece  which  continued  to  re- 
tain the  kingly  form  of  government  during  the  brilliant  period  of 
Grecian  history.  In  all  other  parts  of  Greece  royalty  had  beeij 
abolished  at  an  early  age,  and  various  forms  of  republican  govern- 
ment established  in  its  stead.  The  abolition  of  royalty  was  first 
followed  by  an  Oligarchy,  or  the  government  of  the  Few.  De- 
mocracy, or  the  government  of  the  Many,  Avas  of  later  growth.  It 
was  not  from  the  people  that  the  oligarchies  received  their  first 
and  gi-eatest  blow.  They  were  generally  overthrown  by  the  usurp- 
ers, to  whom  the  Greeks  gave  the  name  of  Tijrants.* 

*  The  Greelc  word  Tyrant  does  not  coiTcspond  in  meaning  to  the  same  word 
in  the  English  language.  It  signifies  simply  an  irresponsible  ruler,  and  may, 
therefore,  be  more  coiTectly  rendered  by  the  term  Despot. 


28  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  V. 

The  rise  of  the  Tyrants  seems  to  have  taken  place  about  the 
same  time  in  a  large  number  of  the  Greek  cities.  In  most  cases 
they  belonged  to  the  nobles,  and  they  generally  became  masters  of 
the  state  by  espousing  the  cause  of  the  commonalty,  and  using  the 
strength  of  the  people  to  put  down  the  oligarchy  by  force.  At 
first  they  were  popular  with  the  general  body  of  the  citizens,  who 
were  glad  to  see  the  humiliation  of  their  former  masters.  But 
discontent  soon  began  to  arise  ;  the  tyrant  had  recourse  to  violence 
to  quell  disaftection ;  and  the  government  became  in  reality  a 
tyranny  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word. 

Many  of  the  tyrants  in  Greece  w^ere  put  down  by  the  Lacediu- 
monians.  Tlie  Si)artan  government  was  essentially  an  oligarchy, 
and  the  Spartans  Avcrc  always  ready  to  lend  tlieir  i)owerful  aid  in 
favour  of  the  government  of  the  Few.  Hence  they  took  an  active 
part  in  the  overthrow  of  the  despots,  with  the  intention  of  estab- 
lishing tlie  ancient  oligarchy  in  their  place.  But  this  rarely  hnp- 
pcned  ;  and  tliey  found  it  impossible  in  most  cases  to  reinstate  the 
former  body  of  nobles  in  their  ancient  jirivilcges.  The  latter,  it 
is  true,  attempted  to  regain  them,  and  were  supported  in  their  at- 
tempts by  Sparta.  Hence  arose  a  new  struggle.  The  first  contest 
after  the  abolition  of  royalty  was  between  oligarchy  and  the  despot,' 
the  next  was  between  oligarchy  and  democracy. 

The  histoiy  of  Athens  aftbrds  the  most  striking  illustration  of 
the  different  revolutions  of  which  wc  have  been  speaking. 

Little  is  known  of  Athens  before  the  age  of  Solon.  Its  legend- 
ary tales  are  few,  its  historical  Hicts  still  fewer.  Cccrops,  tlie  first 
ruler  of  Attica,  is  said  to  have  divided  the  country  into  twelve  dis- 
tricts, which  arc  represented  as  independent  communities,  each 
governed  by  a  separate  king.  1'hey  were  aftcnvards  united  into  a 
single  state,  having  Athens  as  its  cajjital  and  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. At  what  time  this  im])ortant  union  was  effected  cannot  be 
detennined ;  but  it  is  ascribed  to  Theseus,  as  the  national  hero  of 
the  Athenian  people. 

A  few  generations  after  Theseus,  the  Dorians  are  said  to  have 
invaded  Attica.  An  oracle  declared  tliat  ihey  would  be  victorious 
if  tliey  spared  tlie  life  of  the  Athenian  king;  whercuiJon  Codnis, 
who  then  reigned  at  Athens,  resolved  to  sacrifice  himself  fur  the 
welfare  of  his  country.  Accordingly,  lie  went  into  the  invaders' 
cam])  in  disguise,  ])rovoked  a  quarrel  with  one  of  the  Dorian  sol- 
diers, and  was  killed  by  the  latter.  I^pon  learning  the  deatli  of  the 
Athenian  king,  the  Dorians  retired  from  Attica  without  striking  a 
blow;  and  the  Athenians,  from  respect  to  tlie  memory  of  Codrus, 
abolished  the  title  of  king,  and  substituted  for  it  that  of  Archon  or 
Ruler.     The  oflice,  however,  was  held  for  life,  and  was  conlined 


B.C.  G24.       THE  ATHENIAN  GOVERNMENT.  29 

to  the  family  of  Codrus.  His  son  Medon  was  the  first  archon,  and 
he  was  followed  in  the  dignity  by  eleven  members  of  the  family  in 
succession.  But  soon  after  the  accession  of  Alcma;on,  the  tliir- 
teenth  in  descent  from  Medon,  another  change  Avas  introduced, 
and  the  duration  of  the  archonship  was  limited  to  ten  ycai's  (u.c. 
752).  The  dignity  was  still  confined  to  the  descendants  of  Medon ; 
but  in  the  time  of  Hippomenes  (n.c.  714)  this  restriction  was  re- 
moved, and  the  office  was  thrown  open  to  all  the  nobles  in  tha 
state.  In  b.c.  G83  a  still  more  important  change  took  place.  The 
archonship  was  now  made  annual,  and  its  duties  Avere  distributed 
among  nine  persons,  all  of  whom  bore  the  title.  The  last  of  the 
decennial  archons  was  Eryxias,  the  first  of  the  nine  annual  archons 
Creon. 

Such  is  the  legendary  account  of  the  change  of  government  at 
Athens  from  royalty  to  an  oligarchy.  It  appears  to  have  taken 
place  peaceably  and  gradually,  as  in  most  other  Greek  states.  The 
Avhole  political  power  was  vested  in  the  nobles ;  from  them  tlie 
nine  annual  archons  were  taken,  and  to  them  alone  these  magis- 
trates Avere  responsible.  The  people,  or  general  body  of  freemen, 
had  no  share  in  the  gOA'ernment. 

The  Athenian  nobles  Avere  called  Eupatridce,  the  two  other 
classes  in  the  state  being  the  Gcomorl  or  husbandmen,  and  Demi- 
urgi  or  artisans.  This  arrangement  is  ascribed  to  Theseus ;  but 
there  was  another  division  of  the  people  of  still  greater  antiquity. 
As  the  Dorians  were  divided  into  three  tribes,  so  the  lonians  Avere 
usually  distributed  into  four  tribes.  The  latter  division  also  ex- 
isted among  the  Athenians,  Avho  AA'ere  lonians,  and  it  continued 
in  full  vigour  doAvn  to  the  great  revolution  of  Clisthenes  (b.c. 
509).  These  tribes  Avere  distinguished  by  the  names  of  Geleontes 
(or  Tekontes),  "cultiA'ators,"  Ilopletes,  "Avarriors,"  yEgicores, 
"goat-herds,"  and  Argades,  "artisans."  Each  tribe  contained 
three  riiratrire,  each  Phratry  thirty  Gentes,  and  each  Gens  thirty 
heads  of  families. 

The  first  date  in  Athenian  history  on  Avhich  certain  reliance  can 
be  placed  is  the  institution  of  annual  archons,  in  the  A^ear  G83  n.c. 
The  duties  of  the  government  Avere  distributed  among  the  nine 
archons  in  the  foUoAving  manner.  The  first  Avas  called  The  Arch- 
on  by  way  of  pre-eminence,  and  sometimes  the  Ai-chon  Eponymus, 
because  the  year  Avas  distinguished  by  his  name.  The  second 
archon  Avas  called  The  Baslkns  or  The  King,  because  he  repre- 
sented the  king  in  his  capacity  as  high-priest  of  the  nation.  The 
third  archon  bore  the  title  of  'The  Polemarch,  or  Commander-in- 
chief,  and  AA^as,  doAvn  to  the  time  of  Clisthenes,  the  commander 
of  the  troops.     The  remaining  six  had  the  common  title  of  Thes' 


30  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  V. 

7nothef.(v,  or  Legislators.  Their  duties  seem  to  hare  been  almost 
exclusively  judicial. 

The  government  of  the  Eupatrids  was  oppressive;  and  the  dis- 
content of  the  people  at  length  became  so  serious,  that  Draco  was 
appointed  in  024  B.C.  to  draw  up  a  written  code  of  laws.  They 
were  marked  by  extreme  severity.  He  affixed  the  penalty  of 
death  to  all  crimes  alike  ;  to  petty  thefts,  for  instance,  as  well  as 
to  sacrilege  and  murder.  Hence  they  were  said  to  have  been  writ- 
ten, not  in  ink,  but  in  blood  ;  and  we  are  told  that  he  justified  this 
extreme  harshness  by  saying  that  small  offences  dcsei*ved  death, 
and  tliat  he  knew  no  severer  punishment  for  great  ones. 

The  legislation  of  Draco  failed  to  calm  the  prevailing  discon- 
tent. The  people  gained  nothing  by  the  written  code  except  a 
more  perfect  knowledge  of  its  severity,  and  civil  dissensions  pre- 
vailed as  extensively  as  before.  The  general  dissatisfaction  with 
the  government  was  favourable  to  revolutionary  projects ;  and  ac- 
cordingly, twelve  years  after  Draco's  legislation  (n.c.  G12),  Cylon, 
one  of  the  nobles,  conceived  the  design  of  depriving  his  brother 
Eupatrids  of  their  power,  and  making  himself  tyrant  of  Athens. 
Having  collected  a  considerable  force,  he  seized  the  Acropolis;  but 
he  did  not  meet  with  support  from  the  great  mass  of  the  people, 
and  he  soon  found  himself  closely  blockaded  by  the  forces  of  the 
Eupatrids.  Cylon  and  his  brother  made  their  escape,  but  the  re- 
mainder of  his  associates,  hard  pressed  by  hunger,  abandoned  the 
defence  of  the  walls,  and  took  refuge  at  the  altar  of  Athena  (Mi- 
nerva). They  were  induced  by  the  archon  INIcgacles,  one  of  the 
illustrious  family  of  the  AlcnuTonidui,  to  quit  the  altar  on  the 
promise  that  tlieir  lives  should  be  spared  ;  but  directly  they  had 
left  the  temple  they  were  put  to  death,  and  some  of  them  were 
murdered  even  at  the  altar  of  the  Eumenides  or  Furies. 

Tlie  cons])iracy  thus  failed;  but  its  suppression  was  attended 
with  a  long  train  of  melancholy  consequences.  The  whole  family 
of  the  Alcma;onida3  was  believed  to  have  become  tainted  by  the 
daring  act  of  sacrilege  committed  by  Megacles ;  and  the  friends 
and  i)artisans  of  the  murdered  consjnrators  were  not  slow  in  de- 
manding vengeance  ujion  the  accursed  race.  Thus  a  new  element 
of  discord  was  introduced  into  the  state.  In  the  midst  of  these 
dissensions  there  was  one  man  who  enjoyed  a  distinguished  repu- 
tation at  Athens,  and  to  whom  his  fellow-citizens  looked  up  as  the 
only  i)ers()n  in  the  state  who  could  deliver  them  from  their  i)oliti- 
cal  and  social  dissensions,  and  secure  them  from  such  misfortunes 
for  the  future.  This  man  was  Solon,  the  son  of  Execestides,  and 
a  descendant  of  Codrus.  He  had  travelled  through  many  parts 
of  Greece  and  Asia,  ami  had  formed  accpmintance  with  many  of 


B.C.  594.  LEGISLATION  OF  SOLON.  31 

the  most  eminent  men  of  his  time.  On  his  return  to  his  native 
country  he  distinguished  himself  by  recovering  the  island  of  Sala- 
mis,  which  had  revolted  to  Megava  (n.c.  GOO).  Three  years  after- 
wards he  persuaded  the  Alcma^onidaj  to  submit  their  case  to  the 
judgment  of  three  hundred  Eupatridas,  by  whom  they  were  ad- 
judged guilty  of  sacrilege,  and  were  expelled  from  Attica.  The 
banishment  of  the  guilty  race  did  not,  however,  deli^-er  the  Athe- 
nians from  their  religious  fears,  A  pestilential  disease  with  which 
they  were  visited  was  regarded  as  an  unerring  sign  of  the  divine 
wrath.  Upon  the  advice  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  they  invited  tha 
celebrated  Cretan  prophet  and  sage,  Epimenidcs,  to  visit  Athens, 
and  purify  their  city  from  pollution  and  sacrilege.  By  perform- 
ing certain  sacrifices  and  expiatory  acts,  Epimenides  succeeded  in 
staying  the  plague. 

The  civil  dissensions,  however,  still  continued.  The  population 
of  Attica  was  now  divided  into  three  hostile  factions,  consisting  of 
the  PecUeis,  or  wealthy  Eupatrid  inhabitants  of  the  plains  ;  of  the 
Diacrii,  or  poor  inhabitants  of  the  hilly  districts  in  the  north  and 
cast  of  Attica ;  and  of  the  Parali,  or  mercantile  inhabitants  of  the 
coasts,  who  held  an  intermediate  position  between  the  other  two. 
Their  disputes  were  aggravated  by  the  miserable  condition  of  the 
poorer  population.  The  latter  were  in  a  state  of  abject  poverty. 
They  had  borrowed  money  from  the  wealthy  at  exorbitant  rates 
of  interest  upon  the  security  of  their  property  and  their  persons. 
If  the  principal  and  interest  of  the  debt  were  not  paid,  the  creditor 
had  the  power  of  seizing  the  person  as  Avell  as  tlie  land  of  his 
debtor,  and  of  using  him  as  a  slave.  Many  had  thus  been  torn 
from  their  homes  and  sold  to  barbarian  masters,  while  others  were 
cultivating  as  slaves  the  lands  of  their  wealthy  creditors  in  Attica. 
Matters  had  at  length  reached  a  crisis  ;  the  existing  laws  could  no 
longer  be  enforced ;  and  the  poor  were  ready  to  rise  in  open  in- 
surrection against  the  rich. 

In  these  alarming  circumstances  the  ruling  oligarchy  were  obliged 
to  have  recourse  to  Solon ;  and  they  therefore  chose  him  Archon 
in  B.C.  594,  investing  him  under  that  title  with  unlimited  powers 
to  effect  any  change  he  might  consider  beneficial  to  the  state. 
His  appointment  was  hailed  with  satisfaction  by  the  poor;  and  all 
parties  were  willing  to  accept  his  mediation  and  reforms. 

Solon  commenced  his  undertaking  by  relieving  the  poorer  class 
of  debtors  from  their  existing  distress.  He  cancelled  all  contracts 
by  which  the  land  or  person  of  a  debtor  had  been  given  as  se- 
curity ;  and  he  forbid  for  the  future  all  loans  in  which  the  person 
of  the  debtor  was  pledged.  He  next  proceeded  to  draw  up  a  new 
constitution  and  a  new  code  of  laws.     As  a  preliminary  step,  ho 


33  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  V. 

repealed  nil  the  laws  of  Draco  except  those  relatinfc  to  murder. 
He  then  made  a  new  classification  of  the  citizens,  distributing  tliem 
into  four  classes  according  to  the  amount  of  their  property,  thus 
making  wealth,  and  not  birth,  tlic  title  to  the  honours  and  ofiices  of 
the  state.  The  first  class  consisted  of  those  whose  annual  income 
was  equal  to  r>00  mcdimni*  of  corn  and  upwards,  and  were  called 
Pentacosiomcdlmni .  Tlie  second  class  consisted  of  those  whose 
incomes  ranged  between  300  and  "jOO  mcdimni,  and  were  called 
Knights,  from  their  being  able  to  furnish  a  war-horse.  The  third 
class  consisted  of  those  who  received  between  200  and  300  mc- 
dimni, and  Averc  called  Zeu(jU(r,  from  tlieir  being  able  to  kccji 
a  yoke  of  oxen  for  the  plough.  The  fourth  class,  called  T/icfcs, 
included  all  whose  property  fell  short  of  200  mcdimni.  The  first 
class  were  alone  eligible  to  the  archonship  and  the  higher  offices 
of  the  state.  The  second  and  third  classes  fdled  inferior  posts, 
and  were  liable  to  militarj'  service,  the  former  as  horsemen,  and 
the  latter  as  heavy-armed  soldiers  on  foot.  The  fourth  class  were 
excluded  from  all  public  offices,  and  served  in  the  army  only  as 
light-armed  troops.  Solon,  however,  allowed  them  to  vote  in  tho 
public  assembly,  Avhcrc  they  must  have  constituted  by  far  tho 
largest  number.  He  gave  the  assembly  the  right  of  electing  the 
archons  and  the  other  officers  of  the  state ;  and  he  also  made  the 
archons  accountable  to  the  assembly  at  the  expiration  of  their 
year  of  office. 

This  extension  of  the  duties  of  the  public  assembly  led  to  the 
institution  of  a  new  body.  Solon  created  tho  Senate,  or  Council 
of  Four  Hundred,  with  the  special  object  of  i)rei)aring  all  matters 
for  the  discussion  of  the  public  assembly,  of  j)rcsiding  at  its  meet- 
ings, and  of  carrying  its  resolutions  into  cil'ect.  No  subject  could 
be  introduced  before  the  people,  except  by  a  previous  re^jolution 
of  the  Senate.  The  members  of  the  Senate  were  elected  by  tho 
public  assembly,  one  hundred  fiom  each  of  the  four  ancient  tribes, 
which  were  left  untouched  by  Solon.  They  held  their  office  for 
a  year,  and  were  accountable  at  its  expiration  to  the  public  as- 
sembly fur  the  manner  in  Avhich  they  had  discharged  their  duties. 

The  Senate  of  the  Areopagusf  is  said  by  some  writers  to  have 
been  instituted  by  Solon  ;  but  it  existed  long  before  his  time,  and 
may  bo  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the  Council  of  Cliiefs  in 
the  Heroic  Age.  Solon  enlarged  its  powers,  and  intrusted  it  with 
(he  general  siijx'rvisiou  of  tlic  institutions  and  laws  of  tlic  state, 
and  iin])osed  upon  it  the  duty  of  insj)ectin^  the  lives  and  occujia* 

*  'I'lio  iiic(liinim^<  wiis  ono  Ixislicl  jind  i\  li:ilf. 

t  It  loceivcil  its  nnmc  from  its  \Anvv.  of  nRt'liiit;,  whiili  was  a  rocky  ciuin«nco 
^jV*Ho  tho  Acropolii^,  culled  tho  liill  of  Arcs  (Mhi-»'  Hill). 


B.C.  560.       USUKPATION  OF  PISISTRATUS.  33 

tions  of  the  citizens.     All  archons  became  members  of  it  at  the 
expiration  of  their  year  of  office. 

Solon  laid  only  the  foundation  of  the  Athenian  democracy  by 
giving  the  poorer  classes  a  vote  in  the  popular  assembly,  and  by 
enlarging  the  power  of  the  latter ;  but  he  left  the  government  ex- 
clusively in  the  hands  of  the  wealthy.  For  many  years  after  his 
time  the  government  continued  to  be  an  oligarchy,  but  was  exer- 
cised with  more  moderation  and  justice  than  formerly. 

Solon  enacted  numerous  laws,  containing  regulations  on  almost 
all  subjects  connected  with  the  public  and  private  life  of  the  citi- 
zens. He  encouraged  trade  and  manufactures,  and  invited  foreign- 
ers to  settle  in  Athens  by  the  promise  of  protection  and  by  val- 
uable privileges.  To  discourage  idleness,  a  son  was  not  obliged  to 
support  his  father  in  old  age,  if  the  latter  had  neglected  to  teach 
him  some  trade  or  occupation. 

Solon  punished  theft  by  compelling  the  guilty  party  to  restore 
double  the  value  of  the  property  stolen.  He  forbade  speaking  e\il 
cither  of  the  dead  or  of  the  living. 

Solon  is  said  to  have  been  aware  that  he  had  left  many  imper- 
fections in  his  laws.      He  described  them  not  as  the  best  laws 
which  he  could  devise,  but  as  the  best  which  the  Athenians  could 
receive.     Having  bound  the  government  and  peojtle  of  Athens  by 
a  solemn  oath  to  observe  his  institutions  for  at  least  ten  years,  he 
left  Athens  and  travelled  in  foreign  lands.     During  his  absence 
the  old  dissensions  between  the  Plain,  the  Shore,  and  the  Mount- 
ain broke  out  afresh  with  more  violence  than  ever.     The  first 
was  headed  by  Lycurgus,  the  second  by  Megacles,  an  Alcmroonid, 
and  the  third  by  Pisistratus,  the  cousin  of  Solon.     Of  these  lead- 
ers, Pisistratus  was  the  ablest  and  the  most  dangerous.     He  bad 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  poorest  of  the  three  classes,  in  order  to 
gain  popularity,  and  to  make  himself  master  of  Athens.    Solon,  on 
his  return  to  Athens,  detected  the  ambitious  designs  of  his  kins- 
man, and  attempted  to  dissuade  him  from  them.     Finding  his  re- 
monstrances fruitless,  he  next  denounced  his  projects  in  verses  ad- 
dressed to  the  people.    Few,  liowever,  gave  any  heed  to  the  warn- 
ings ;  and  Pisistratus,  at  length  finding  his  schemes  ripe  for  action, 
had  recourse  to  a  memorable  stratagem  to  secure  his  object.     One 
day  he  appeared  in  the  market-place  in  a  chariot,  his  mules  and 
his  ov\'n  person  bleeding  with  Avounds  inflicted  with  his  own  hands. 
These  he  exhibited  to  the  people,  telling  them  that  he  had  been 
nearly  murdered  in  consequence  of  defending  their  rights.     Thes 
popular  indignation  was  excited;  and  a  guard  of  fifty  clubmen 
was  granted  him  for  his  future  security.      He  gradually  increased 
the  n^unber  of  bis  guard,  and  soon  found  himself  strong  enough  to 

n 


Ui  niSTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  V. 

throw  off  the  mask  and  seize  the  Acropolis  (n.c.  500).  Mcgaclcii 
and  the  Alcniaconidaj  left  the  city.  Solon  alone  had  the  courage 
to  oppose  the  usurpation,  and  u])braided  the  jjcoplc  with  their  co\v< 
ardice  and  their  treachery.  "You  niiKlit,"  said  he,  "with  ease 
have  crushed  the  tyrant  in  the  bud ;  but  nothing  now  rcmaing 
but  to  i)luck  him  up  by  the  roots."  But  no  one  responded  to  his 
appeal.  He  refused  to  fly;  and  Avhen  his  friends  asked  him  on 
what  he  relied  for  protection,  "On  my  old  age,"  was  his  reply. 
It  is  creditable  to  Pisistratus  that  he  left  his  aged  relative  unmo- 
lested, and  even  asked  his  advice  in  the  administration  of  the  gov-, 
crnment.  Solon  did  not  long  survive  the  overthrow  of  the  con- 
stitution. He  died  a  year  or  two  aftenvards,  at  the  advanced  ago 
of  eighty.  His  ashes  are  said  to  have  been  scattered  by  his  own 
direction  round  the  island  of  Salamis,  which  he  had  won  for  the 
Athenian  people. 

Pisistratus,  however,  did  not  retain  his  power  long.  The  leaders 
of  the  factions  of  the  Shore  and  the  Plain  combined,  and  drove  the 
usurper  into  exile.  But  the  Shore  and  the  Plain  having  quarrel- 
led, Pisistratus  was  recalled  and  again  became  master  of  Athens. 
Another  revolution  shortly  aftenvards  drove  hii  i  into  exile  a  sec- 
ond time,  and  he  remained  abroad  ten  years, 
the  assistance  of  mercenaries  from  other  GreciAi  states  and  with 
the  aid  of  his  partisans  in  Athens,  he  became  milster  of  Athens  for 
the  third  time,  and  henceforth  continued  in  possession  of  the  su- 
preme power  till  the  day  of  his  deatli.  As  soonlas  he  was  firmly 
established  in  the  government,  his  administration  was  marked  by 
mildness  and  equity.  He  maintained  the  institAtions  of  Solon, 
taking  care,  however,  that  the  highest  offices  should  always  be 
held  by  some  members  of  his  own  family.  He  not  only  en- 
forced strict  obedience  to  the  laAvs,  but  himself  set  the  example  of 
submitting  to  them.  Being  accused  of  murder,  he  disdained  to 
take  advantage  of  his  authority,  and  went  in  person  to  plead  his 
cause  before  the  Areo])agus,  where  his  accuser  did  not  venture  to 
appear.  He  courted  ])opularity  by  largesses  to  the  citizens  and  by 
throwing  open  his  gardens  to  the  poor.  He  adorned  Athens  with 
many  ]»nblic  buiklings.  He  commenced  on  a  stui)endous  scale  a 
temple  to  tlie  Olynijiian  Zeus,  wliich  remained  unlinishcd  for  cen- 
turies, and  was  at  length  completed  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  He 
was  a  patron  of  literature  as  well  as  of  the  arts.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  person  in  Greece  who  collected  a  library,  which 
ho  threw  open  to  the  pid)!ic ;  and  to  him  ]u)stcrity  is  indebted  for 
the  collection  of  tlie  Homeric  ])()cms.  On  the  wliolc,  it  cannot  bo 
denied  that  he  made  a  wise  and  noble  use  of  liis  power. 

Pisistratus  died  at  an  advanced  age  iu  527  B.C.,  thirty-threo 


B.C.  514.    ASSASSINATION  OF  IIIPPARCIIUS.  85 

years  after  his  first  usurpation.  He  transmitted  the  sovereign  pow, 
er  to  his  sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparclius,  who  conducted  tlie  govern- 
ment on  tlie  same  jsrinciples  as  their  fother,  Hipparchus  inherited 
his  father's  literary  tastes.  He  invited  several  distinguished  poets, 
such  as  Anacreon  and  Simonides,  to  his  court.  The  people  ap- 
pear to  have  been  contented  with  their  rule;  and  it  was  only  an 
accidental  circumstance  which  led  to  their  overthrow  and  to  a 
change  in  the  government. 

Their  fall  was  occasioned  by  the  conspiracy  of  Harmodius  and 
Aristoglton,  who  were  attached  to  each  other  by  a  most  intimate 
friendship.  Harmodius  having  given  offence  to  Hippias,  the  des- 
pot revenged  himself  by  putting  a  public  affront  upon  his  sister. 
This  indignity  excited  the  resentment  of  the  two  friends,  and  they 
hovr  resolved  to  slay  the  despots  at  the  festival  of  the  Great  Pana- 
thensea,  when  all  the  citizens  were  required  to  attend  in  arms. 
Having  communicated  their  design  to  a  few  associates,  the  con- 
spirators appeared  armed  at  the  appointed  time  like  the  refit  of  the 
citizens,  but  carrying  concealed  daggers  besides.  Harmodius  and 
Aristoglton  had  planned  to  kill  Hippias  first  as  he  was  arranging 
the  order  of  the  procession  outside  the  city,  but,  upon  approaching 
the  spot  where  he  was  standing,  they  were  thunderstruck  at  behold- 
ing one  of  the  conspirators  in  close  conversation  with  the  despot. 
Believing  that  they  were  betrayed,  they  rushed  back  into  the  city 
with  their  daggers  hid  in  the  myrtle  boughs  which  they  were  to 
have  carried  in  the  procession,  and  killed  Hipparchus.  Harmo- 
dius was  immediately  cut  down  by  the  guards.  Aristoglton  died 
under  the  tortures  to  Avhich  he  was  subjected  in  order  to  compel 
him  to  disclose  his  accomplices. 

Hipparchus  was  assassinated  in  B.C.  514,  the  fourteenth  year 
after  the  death  of  Pisistratus.  From  this  time  the  character  of 
the  government  became  entirely  changed.  His  brother's  murder 
converted  Hippias  into  a  cruel  and  suspicious  tyrant.  He  put  to 
death  numbers  of  the  citizens,  and  raised  large  sums  of  money  by 
extraordinary  taxes. 

The  AlcmffionidiB,  vAio  had  lived  in  exile  ever  since  the  third 
and  final  restoration  of  Pisistratus  to  Athens,  now  began  to  form 
schemes  to  expel  the  tyrant,  Clisthenes,  the  son  of  Megacles, 
who  v.as  the  head  of  the  family,  secured  the  Delphian  oracle  by 
pecuniaiy  presents  to  the  Pythia,  or  priestess.  Henceforth,  when- 
ever the  Spartans  came  to  consult  the  oracle,  the  answer  of  the 
priestess  was  always  the  same,  ''Athens  must  be  liberated."  This 
order  was  so  often  repeated,  tliat  the  Spartans  at  last  resolved  to 
obey.  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sj^arta,  defeated  the  Thessoliau  allies 
of  Hippias  ;  and  the  tyrant,  unable  to  meet  his  enemies  in  the  field, 


36  IIISTOUY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  V. 

took  refuge  in  the  Acropolis.  Here  he  miglit  liavc  maintained 
himself  in  safety,  had  not  his  children  been  made  prisoners  as  they 
were  being  secretly  carried  out  of  the  country.  To  procure  thcii 
restoration,  he  consented  to  quit  Attica  in  the  space  of  five  days. 
lie  sailed  to  Asia,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  SigCnim  in  the 
Troad,  which  his  father  had  wrested  from  the  Mytilenreans  in  war. 

Ilippias  was  expelled  in  u.c.  510,  four  years  after  the  assassina- 
tion of  Ilipparchus.  These  four  years  had  been  a  time  of  snft'er- 
ing  and  oppression  for  the  Athenians,  and  had  effaced  from  their 
minds  all  recollection  of  the  former  mild  rule  of  Pisistratus  and 
his  sons.  Hence  the  expulsion  of  the  family  was  hailed  with  de- 
light. The  memory  of  Ilarmodius  and  Aristogiton  was  cherished 
witli  the  fondest  reverence ;  and  the  Athenians  of  a  later  age, 
overlooking  the  four  years  which  had  elapsed  from  their  death  to 
the  overthrow  of  tlie  despotism,  represented  them  as  the  liberators 
of  their  country  and  the  first  martyi's  for  its  liberty.  Their  statues 
were  erected  in  the  market-place  soon  after  the  expulsion  of  Hip- 
pia? ',  their  descendants  enjoyed  immunity  from  all  taxes  and 
public  burdens  ;  and  their  deed  of  vengeance  formed  the  favourite 
subject  of  drinking-songs. 

The  Lacedaemonians  quitted  Athens  soon  after  Hippias  luul 
sailed  away,  leaving  the  Athenians  to  settle  their  own  afiairs. 
Clisthenes,  to  whom  Athens  was  mainly  indebted  for  its  liberation 
from  the  despotism,  aspired  to  be  the  political  leader  of  the  state, 
but  he  was  opposed  by  Isagoras,  the  leader  of  tlie  party  of  the  no- 
bles. By  the  Solonian  constitution,  the  whole  political  power 
was  vested  in  tlie  hands  of  the  nobles;  and  Clisthenes  soon  found 
that  it  was  hopeless  to  contend  against  his  rival  under  the  existing 
order  of  things.  For  this  reason  he  resolved  to  introduce  an  im- 
portant change  in  tlie  constitution,  and  to  give  to  the  people  an 
equal  share  in  tlie  government. 

The  reforms  of  Clisthenes  gave  birth  to  the  Athenian  democrncy, 
wliicli  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed  Itefore  this  time.  His 
first  and  most  im])ortant  measure  Avas  a  redistribution  of  the  whole 
population  of  Attica  into  ten  new  tril)cs.  He  abolished  the  fonr 
ancient  Ionic  tribes,  and  enrolled  in  the  ten  new  tribes  all  the  free 
inhabitants  of  Attica,  including  both  resident  aliens  and  even 
cmnncipatcd  slaves.  He  divided  tlio  tribes  into  a  certain  numbot 
of  cantons  or  townships,  called  (Ittni,  which  at  a  later  time  were 
174  in  number.  Every  Athenian  citizen  was  obliged  to  be  en- 
rolled in  ademus,  each  of  whicli,  like  a  jjarisli  in  England,  admin- 
istered its  own  atralrs.  It  had  its  pidilic  meetings,  it  levied  rates, 
and  was  under  the  siq)erinteiuleiice  of  an  ofiicer  called  Jh  iiuirc/ms. 

The  establishment  of  the  ten  new  tribes  led  to  a  change  in  tho 


B.C.  51a  REFORMS  OF  CLISTIIENES.  37 

number  of  the  Senate.  It  had  previously  consisted  of  400  mem- 
bers, but  it  was  noAV  enlarged  to  500,  fifty  being  selected  from  each 
of  the  ten  new  tribes.  The  Ecclesia,  or  formal  assembly  of  the 
citizens,  was  now  summoned  at  certain  fixed  periods ;  and  Clis- 
thencs  transferred  the  government  of  the  state,  which  had  hithen 
to  been  in  the  hands  of  the  archons,  to  the  senate  and  the  ecclesia. 
He  also  increased  the  judicial  as  Avell  as  the  political  pov/er  of  the 
people ;  and  enacted  tliat  all  public  crimes  should  be  tried  by  the 
whole  body  of  citizens  above  thirty  years  of  age,  specially  convoked 
and  sworn  for  the  purpose.  Tlie  assembly  thus  convened  was 
called  Ilelicva,  and  its  members  Ileliasts.  Clisthenes  also  intro- 
duced the  Ostracism,  by  which  an  Athenian  citizen  might  be  ban- 
ished without  special  accusation,  trial,  or  defence  for  ten  years, 
which  term  was  subsequently  reduced  to  five.  It  must  be  recollect- 
ed that  the  force  which  a  Greek  government  had  at  its  disposal 
Was  very  small ;  and  tlxat  it  was  comparatively  easy  for  an  am- 
bitious citizen,  supported  by  a  numerous  body  of  partisans,  to  over- 
throw the  constitution  and  make  himself  despot.  The  Ostracism 
was  the  means  devised  by  Clisthenes  for  removing  quietly  from  the 
state  a  powerful  party  leader  before  he  Could  carry  into  execution 
any  violent  schemes  for  the  subversion  of  the  government.  Every 
precaution  was  taken  to  guard  this  institution  from  abuse.  The 
senate  and  the  ecclesia  had  first  to  determine  by  a  special  vote 
whether  the  safety  of  the  state  required  such  a  step  to  be  taken. 
If  they  decided  in  the  affirmative,  a  day  was  fixed  for  the  voting, 
and  each  citizen  wrote  upon  a  tile  or  oyster-shell*  tlie  name  of  the 
person  whom  he  wished  to  banish.  The  votes  were  then  collected, 
and  if  it  was  found  that  GOOO  had  been  recorded  against  any  one 
person,  he  was  obliged  to  withdraw  from  the  city  within  ten  days ; 
if  the  number  of  votes  did  not  amount  to  GOOO,  nothing  was  done. 
The  aristocratical  party,  enraged  at  these  reforms,  called  in  the 
assistance  of  Cleomenes,  king  of  the  Lacedaemonians.  Athens  was 
menaced  by  foreign  enemies  and  distracted  by  party  struggles. 
Clisthenes  was  at  first  compelled  to  retire  from  Athens  ;  but  the 
people  rose  in  arms  against  Cleomenes,  expelled  the  Lacedaemoni- 
ans, Avho  had  taken  possession  of  the  city,  and  recalled  Clisthenes. 
Thereupon  Cleomenes  collected  a  Peloponnesian  army  in  order  to 
establish  Isagoras  as  a  tyrant  over  the  Athenians,  and  at  the  same 
time  he  concerted  measures  with  the  Thebans  and  the  Chalcidians 
of  Euboca  for  a  simultaneous  attack  upon  Attica.  The  Pelopon- 
nesian army,  commanded  by  the  two  kings,  Cleomenes  and  Dem- 
arutus,  entered  Attica,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Eleusis ;  but  wlien 
the  allies  became  aware  of  the  object  for  which  they  had  been 
•  O.sfraco/?,  whence  the  name  Gstracism. 


38  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  V. 

summoned,  they  refused  to  march  fixrtlicr,  and  strongly  protested 
aj::ainst  the  attempt  to  establish  a  tyranny  at  Athens.  Their  re- 
monstrances bein^'  seeoiuk'd  by  Dcniaratiis,  CIcomenes  found  it 
necessary  to  abandon  the  expedition  and  return  home.  At  a  later 
period  (b.c.  491)  Cleomenes  took  revenge  upon  Bemaratus  by  per- 
suading the  Spartans  to  depose  him  upon  tlie  ground  of  illegiti- 
macy.    The  exiled  king  took  refuge  at  the  Persian  court. 

The  unexpected  retreat  of  the  Peloponnesian  army  delivered 
the  Athenians  from  tlieir  most  formidable  enemy,  and  they  lost  no 
time  in  turning  their  arms  against  their  other  foes.  Marching  into 
Boeotia,  they  defeated  tlic  Thcbans,  and  then  crossed  over  into 
Euboca,  where  they  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Chalcidians. 
In  order  to  secure  their  dominion  in  Euboca,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  provide  for  their  poorer  citizens,  the  Athenians  distributed  the 
estates  of  the  Avealthy  Chalcidian  landowners  among  4000  of  their 
citizens,  who  settled  in  the  country  under  the  name  of  Clerudn. 

The  successes  of  Athens  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Spartans, 
and  they  now  resolved  to  make  a  third  attempt  to  overthrow  the 
Athenian  democracy.  They  had  meantime  discovered  the  decep- 
tion which  had  been  practised  upon  them  by  the  Delphic  oracle ; 
and  they  invited  Hippias  to  come  from  Sigeum  to  Sparta,  in  order 
to  restore  him  to  Athens.  The  experience  of  the  last  campaign 
had  taught  them  that  they  could  not  calculate  upon  the  co-opera- 
tion of  their  allies  without  first  obtaining  their  approval  of  the  proj- 
ect ;  and  they  therefore  summoned  deputies  from  all  their  allies 
to  meet  at  Sparta,  in  order  to  determine  respecting  the  restoration 
of  Hippias.  But  the  proposal  Avas  received  with  universal  repug- 
nance ;  and  the  Spartans  found  it  necessary  to  abandon  their  i)roj- 
cct.  Hippias  returned  to  Sigeum,  and  afterwards  proceeded  to 
the  court  of  Darius. 

Athens  had  now  entered  upon  her  glorious  career.  The  institu- 
tions of  Clisthenes  had  given  her  citizens  a  personal  interest  in  the 
welfare  and  the  grandeur  of  their  country.  A  spirit  of  the  wann- 
est patriotism  rapidly  sprang  up  among  them ;  and  the  history  of 
the  Persian  wars,  which  followed  almost  immediately,  exhibits  a 
striking  ])roof  of  the  heroic  sacrifices  which  they  were  prepared  to 
make  for  the  liberty  and  independence  of  their  state. 


Site  of  Ephesus, 


CHAPTER  YI. 


THE    GREEK    COLONIES. 


The  vast  number  of  the  Greek  colonies,  their  wide-spread  dif- 
fusion over  all  parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  thus  became  a 
kind  of  Grecian  lake,  and  their  rapid  growth  in  wealth,  power, 
and  intelligence,  afford  the  most  striking  proofs  of  the  greatness 
of  this  wonderful  people.  Civil  dissensions  and  a  redundant  popu- 
lation were  the  chief  causes  of  the  origin  of  most  of  the  Greek  col- 
onies. They  were  usually  undertaken  with  the  approbation  of 
the  cities  from  which  they  issued,  and  under  the  management  of 
leaders  appointed  by  them.  But  a  Greek  colony  was  always  con- 
sidered politically  independent  of  the  mother-city  and  emancipated 
from  its  control.  The  only  connexion  between  them  was  one  of 
filial  aifection  and  of  common  religious  ties.  Almost  every  co- 
lonial Gi'eek  city  was  built  upon  the  sea-coast,  and  the  site  usual- 
ly selected  contained  a  hill  sufficiently  lofty  to  form  an  acropolis. 

The  Grecian  colonies  may  be  arranged  in  four  groups :  1.  Thosa 
founded  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  adjoining  islands  ;  2.  Those  in  the 
western  parts  of  the  INIediterranean,  in  Italy,  Sicily,  Gaul,  and 
Spain ;  3.  Those  in  Africa ;  4.  Those  in  Epirus,  JMaccdonia,  and 
Thrace. 

1.  The  earliest  Greek  colonies  were  those  founded  on  the  western 
shores  of  Asia  Minor.     They  were  divided  into  three  great  mass- 


iO 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  VI. 


cs,  each  bearing  the  name  of  tliat  Paction  of  tlie  Greek  race  with 
which  they  claimed  afiinit}'.  Tiie  AloVic  cities  covered  the  nortli- 
cm  part  of  the  coast,  togetlier  with  the  islands  of  Lesbos  and 
Tencdos ;  the  lonians  occupied  tlie  centre,  with  the  islands  of 
Chios  and  Samos  ;  and  the  Dorians  the  southern  portion,  with  the 


n 


'-12     A  ti     ■r.^ 


ALCEDON. 


^^' 


^-^  C^"^  c 


'-;^; 


'fi. 


&'^j 


■  n 


m^ 


Map  of  the  chief  Greek  (Jolouiod  in  Adiii  Minor. 


B.C.  735-600.        THE  GREEK  COLONIES. 


i\ 


islands  of  Rhodes  and  Cos.  Most  of  these  colonies  were  found- 
ed in  consequence  of  the  chanpjes  in  the  population  of  Greece 
which  attended  tlie  conquest  of  Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorians. 
The  Ionic  cities  wei-e  early  distinguished  by  a  spirit  of  commercial 
enterprise,  and  soon  rose  superior  in  Avealth  and  in  po;ver  to  their 
^li^olian  and  Dorian  neighbours.  Among  the  Ionic  cities  them- 
selves IMiletus  and  Ephesus  were  the  most  flourishing.  Grecian 
literature  took  its  rise  in  the  ^olic  and  Ionic  cities  of  Asia  Minor. 
Homer  was  probably  a  native  of  Smyrna.  Lyric  poetry  flourish- 
ed in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  where  Sappho  and  Alcaus  were  born. 
The  Ionic  cities  were  also  the  seats  of  the  earliest  schools  of  Gre- 
cian philosophy.  Thales,  who  founded  the  Ionic  school  of  phi- 
losophy, was  a  native  of  Miletus.  Halicarnassus  was  one  of  the 
most  important  of  the  Doric  cities,  of  which  Herodotus  was  a  na- 
tive, though  he  wrote  in  the  Ionic  dialect. 

2.  The  earliest  Grecian  settlement  in  Italy  was  Cumtc  in  Cam- 
pania, situated  near  Cape  Misennm,  on  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  a  joint  colony  from  the  ^olic  Cyme  in  Asia  and 
from  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  and  to  have  been  founded,  according  to 
the  common  chronology,  in  B.C.  1050.  Cumre  was  for  a  long  time 
the  most  flourishing  city  in  Campania ;  and  it  v/as  not  till  its  de- 
cline in  the  fifth  century  before  the  Christian  era  that  Capua  rose 
into  importance. 


ftlap  of  the  chief  Greek  Colonies  in  Sicily. 


42  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VT. 

The  earliest  Grecian  settlement  in  Sicily  was  founded  in  n.c. 
735.  The  extraordinary  fertilit}'  of  the  land  soon  attracted  nu- 
merous colonists  from  various  parts  of  Greece,  and  there  arose  on 
the  coasts  of  Sicily  a  succession  of  flourishing  cities.  Of  these, 
Syracuse  and  Agrigentum,  both  Dorian  colonies,  became  the  most 
I)Owerful.  The  former  was  founded  by  the  Corinthians  in  B.C.  734, 
and  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  prosperity  contained  a  population 
of  500,000  souls,  and  was  surrounded  by  walls  twenty- two  milec 
in  circuit.  Its  greatness,  however,  belongs  to  a  later  period  of 
Grecian  history. 

The  Grecian  colonies  in  southern  Italy  began  to  be  planted  at 
nearly  the  same  time  as  in  Sicily.  They  eventually  lined  the 
whole  southern  coast,  as  far  as  Cuma?  on  the  one  sea  and  Tarcn- 
tum  on  the  other.  They  even  surpassed  those  in  Sicily  in  number 
and  importance  ;  and  so  numerous  and  flourishing  did  they  be- 
come, that  the  south  of  Italy  received  the  name  of  Magna  Gra?cia. 
Of  these,  two  of  the  earliest  and  most  prosperous  were  Sybaris  and 
Croton,  both  situated  upon  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum,  and  both  of 
Acha'an  origin.  Sybaris  was  planted  in  n.c.  720,  and  Croton  in 
B.C.  710.  For  two  centuries  they  seem  to  have  lived  in  harmony, 
and  we  know  scarcely  anything  of  their  history  till  their  fatal  con- 
test in  B.C.  510,  Avhich  ended  in  the  ruin  of  Sybaris.  During  the 
whole  of  tliis  period  they  were  two  of  the  most  flourishing  cities 
in  all  Ilellas.  Sybaris  in  particular  attained  to  an  extraordinaiy 
degree  of  wealth,  and  its  inhabitants  were  so  notorious  for  their 
luxury,  effeminacy,  and  debauchery,  that  their  name  has  become 
proverbial  for  a  voluptuary  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  Croton 
was  the  chief  scat  of  the  Pythagorean  philosophy.  Pythagoras 
was  a  native  of  Samos,  but  emigrated  to  Croton,  where  he  met 
with  the  most  wonderful  success  in  the  propagation  of  his  views. 
He  established  a  kind  of  religious  brotherhood,  closely  united  by 
a  sacred  vow.  They  believed  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and 
their  whole  training  was  designed  to  make  them  temperate  and 
self-denying.  TIic  doctrines  of  Pythagoras  spread  through  many 
of  the  other  cities  of  Magna  Gnvcia. 

Of  the  numerous  other  Greek  settlements  in  the  south  of  Italy, 
those  of  Locri,  Rhcgium,  and  Tarentum  are  the  most  important. 
Locri  was  founded  by  the  Locrians  from  the  mother-country  in 
B.C.  GS3.  The  laws  of  this  city  were  drawn  uj)  by  one  of  its 
citizens,  named  Zaleucus,  and  so  averse  were  the  Locrians  to  any 
change  in  them,  that  whoever  proposed  a  new  law  had  to  appear 
in  the  public  assembly  witli  a  rope  round  his  neck,  which  was 
immediately  tightened  if  he  failed  to  convince  his  fellow-citizens 
of  the  necessity  of  the  alteration.     Rhegiuui,  situated  on  the  fc^traits 


B.C.  735-GOO. 


THE  GREEK  COLONIES. 


43 


of  Messina,  opposite  Sicily,  was  colonized  by  the  Chalcidians,  but 
received  a  large  body  of  Messenians,  who  settled  here  at  the  close 
of  the  Messenian  war.  Anaxilas,  tyrant  of  Khegiuni  about  b.c. 
500,  was  of  Messenian  descent.  He  seized  the  Sicilian  Zancle  on 
the  opposite  coast,  and  changed  its  name  into  Messana,  which  it 
still  bears.  Tarentum  was  a  colony  from  Sparta,  and  was  founded 
about  B.C.  708.  After  the  destruction  of  Sybaris  it  was  the  most 
powerful  and  flourishing  city  in  Magna  Grgecia,  and  continued  to 
enjoy  great  prosperity  till  its  subjugation  by  the  Romans.  Al- 
tliough  of  Spartan  origin,  it  did  not  maintain  Spartan  habits,  and 
its  citizens  were  noted  at  a  later  time  for  their  love  of  luxury  and 
pleasure. 


Q TARENTUM. 


Map  of  the  chief  Greek  Colonies  in  Southern  It»'' 


44  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VJ: 

Tho  Grecian  settlements  in  the  distant  countries  of  Ganl  and 
Spain  were  not  numerous.  Tlie  most  celeljratcd  was  Massalia,  tlio 
modern  Marseilles,  founded  by  the  Ionic  IMioctvans  in  iJ.c.  GOO. 

3.  The  northern  coast  of  Africa,  between  the  territories  of 
Carthage  and  Egypt,  was  also  occui)ied  by  Greek  colonists.  The 
city  of  Cyrene  was  founded  about  n.c.  OIK).  It  was  a  colony  from 
the  island  of  Thera  in  tlic  vEgean,  which  was  itself  a  colony  from 
Sparta.  The  situation  of  Cyrene  was  well  chosen.  It  stood  on 
the  edge  of  a  range  of  hills,  at  the  distance  of  ten  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean,  of  which  it  commanded  a  fine  view.  These  hills 
descended  by  a  succession  of  terraces  to  the  ])ort  of  the  town,  call- 
ed A})oIlonia.  The  climate  Avas  most  salubrious,  and  the  soil  was 
distinguished  by  extraordinary  fertility.  AVith  these  advantages 
Cyrene  rapidly  grew  iu  wealth  and  ]JOwer;  and  its  greatness  is 
attested  by  the  immense  remains  which  still  mark  its  desolate  site. 
Cyrene  jdanted  several  colonies  in  the  adjoining  district,  of  which 
Barca,  founded  about  n.c.  500,  was  the  most  important. 

4.  There  were  several  Grecian  colonies  situated  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Ionian  Sen,  in  Epirus  and  its  immediate  neighbour- 
hood. Of  these  tlie  island  of  Corcyra,  now  called  Corfu,  was  tho 
most  wealthy  and  powerful.  It  was  founded  by  the  Corinthians 
about  u.c.  700,  and  in  consequence  of  its  commercial  activity  it 
soon  became  a  formidable  rival  to  the  mother-city.  Hence  a  war 
broke  out  between  these  two  states  at  an  early  period ;  and  the 
most  ancient  naval  battle  on  record  was  tlie  one  fought  between 
their  fleets  iu  n.c.  00k  The  dissensions  between  the  mother-city 
and  her  colony  arc  frequently  mentioned  in  Grecian  history,  and 
were  one  of  the  immediate  causes  of  the  Peloj)onnesian  war.  Not- 
withstanding their  quarrels,  they  joined  in  planting  four  Grecian 
colonies  upon  the  same  line  of  coast — Leucas,  Anactorium,  Apol- 
lonia,  and  Epidamnus. 

Tiic  colonies  in  Macedonia  and  Thrace  were  very  numerous, 
and  extended  all  along  the  coast  of  the  JEgean,  of  the  Hellespont, 
of  the  I'ropontis,  and  of  the  Euxine,  from  the  borders  of  Thessaly 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube.  Of  these  we  can  only  glance  at  the 
most  imi)ortant.  The  colonies  on  the  coast  of  jNlacedonia  were 
chiefly  founded  by  Chalcis  and  Erctria  in  Eubcca  ;  and  the  penin- 
sula of  Chalcidice,  with  its  three  projecting  headlands,  was  covered 
with  their  settlements,  and  derived  its  name  from  the  former  city. 
The  CJorinthians  likewise  i)lanted  a  few  c()h)nies  on  this  coast,  of 
which  Potidica,  on  tlic  luirrow  isthmus  of  I'allcne,  most  deserves 
mention. 

Of  the  colonies  in  Thrace,  tlic  most  flourishing  were  Selymbria 
au'l  nvzantium,  l)i)th  founded  by  the  Mogarians,  who  ajipcar  a«an 
o.uK'rprisiug  maritime  ]>eo])le  at  an  early  period. 


Tomb  of  Cyrus. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    PERSIAN   WARS. — FR03I    THE    IONIC    REVOLT   TO   THE    BATTLE 
OF    MARATHON,   B.C.  500-430. 

The  Grecian  cities  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  were  the  neigh- 
bours of  an  Asiatic  power  which  finally  reduced  thein  to  subjec- 
tion. This  was  the  kingdom  of  Lydia,  of  which  Sardis  vras  the 
capital.  Croesus,  the  last  and  most  powerful  of  the  Lydian  kings, 
who  ascended  the  throne  b.c.  5G0,  conquered  in  succession  all  the 
Grecian  cities  on  the  coast.  His  rule,  however,  was  not  opprers- 
ire,  and  he  permitted  the  cities  to  regulate  their  own  affairs. 
He  spoke  the  Greek  language,  welcomed  Greek  guests,  and  rev- 
erenced the  Greek  oracles,  which  he  enriched  with  the  most  mu- 
nificent offerings.  He  extended  his  dominions  in  Asia  Minor  ns 
far  as  the  River  Halys,  and  he  formed  a  close  alliance  v/ith  Asty- 
ages,  king  of  the  Medes,  who  were  then  the  ruling  race  in  Asia 
Everything  seemed  to  betoken  Tininternipted  prosperity,  when  a 
people  hitherto  almost  unknown  suddenly  became  masters  of  the 
whole  of  western  Asia. 


i6  HISTORY  OF  GliEECE.  Chap.  VII 

The  Persians  were  of  the  same  race  as  the  Modes,  and  spoke  a 
dialect  of  tlic  same  hinj^iiagc.  They  inhabited  the  mountaiiiou 
region  soiitli  of  JNIedia,  which  shjpcs  gradually  down  to  the  low 
gi-ounds  on  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  Wliile  the  Mcdes  be- 
came enervated  by  the  corrii]iting  influences  to  which  they  were 
exposed,  the  Persians  preserved  in  tlicir  native  mountains  their 
simple  and  M'arlike  habits.  They  Avere  a  brave  and  hardy  nation, 
clothed  in  skins,  drinking  only  water,  and  ignorant  of  the  com- 
monest luxuries  of  life.  Cyrus  led  tliesc  lierce  warriors  from 
their  mountain  fastnesses,  defeated  the  Medes  in  battle,  took  Asty- 
agcs  prisoner,  and  deprived  him  of  his  throne.  The  other  nations 
included  in  the  Median  em]>irc  submitted  to  the  conqueror,  and 
the  sovereignty  of  Upper  Asia  tlius  i)assed  from  the  INIedes  to  the 
Persians.  The  accession  of  Cyrus  to  the  empire  is  ])laced  in  J5.c. 
559.  A  few  years  afterwards  Cyrus  turned  his  arms  against  the 
Lydians,  took  Sardis,  and  deprived  Croesus  of  his  throne  (n.c.  54G). 
The  fall  of  Crasus  was  followed  by  the  subjection  of  the  Greek 
cities  in  Asia  to  the  Persian  yoke.  They  offered  a  brave  but  inef- 
fectual resistance,  and  were  taken  one  after  the  other  by  Harpagus, 
the  Persian  general.  Even  the  islnnds  of  Lesbos  and  Chios  sent 
in  their  submission  to  Ilnrjiagus,  although  the  Persians  then  jios- 
sessed  no  fleet  to  force  them  to  obedience.  Samos,  on  the  other 
hand,  maintained  its  independence,  and  appears  soon  afterwards 
one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Grecian  states. 

During  the  reign  of  Cambyses  (n.c.  529-521),  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Cynis,  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  remained  obedient  to  their 
Persian  governors.  It  was  during  tliis  reign  that  Polycrates,  ty- 
rant of  Samos,  became  the  master  of  the  Grecian  seas.  The  am- 
bition and  good  fortune  of  tliis  enterprising  tyrant  were  alike  re- 
markable, lie  possessed  a  hnndred  ships  of  war,  with  which  he 
conquered  several  of  the  islands ;  and  he  aspired  to  nothing  less 
than  the  dominion  of  Ionia,  as  well  as  of  the  islands  in  tlie  ^Egean. 
The  LacedaBmunians,  who  had  invaded  the  island  at  the  invitaiiin 
of  the  Samian  exiles,  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  his  govcm- 
ment,  were  obliged  to  retire,  after  besieging  his  city  in  vain  for 
fjrty  days.  Everything  Avhich  ho  nndcrtook  seemed  to  prosper; 
but  his  uninterruj>ted  good  fortune  at  length  excited  the  alarm  of 
his  ally  Amasis,  the  king  of  Egypt.  According  to  the  tale  related 
by  Herodotus,  the  Egyptian  king,  convinced  that  such  amazing 
good  fortune  would  sooner  or  later  incur  the  envy  of  the  gods, 
wrote  to  I'olycratcs,  advising  him  to  tlirow  away  one  of  iiis  most 
Valual)le  jiosscssions,  and  thus  inllict  some  injury  nj)on  himself. 
'J'hinking  tlic  advice  to  be  good,  Polycrates  threw  into  the  sea  a 
favourite  ring  of  matchless  price  and  beauty;  but,  unfortunately,  it 


B.C.  559-510.     CYRUS,  CAMBYSES,  DARIUS.  4) 

was  found  a  few  days  afterwards  in  the  belly  of  a  fine  fish  which  a 
fisherman  had  sent  him  as  a  present.  Amasis  now  foresaw  that 
the  ruin  of  Polycrates  was  inevitable,  and  sent  a  herald  to  Samos  to 
renounce  his  alliance.  The  gloomy  anticipations  of  the  Egyptian 
monarch  proved  well  founded.  In  the  midst  of  all  his  prosperity 
Polycrates  fell  by  a  most  ignominious  fate.  Oroetes,  the  satrap 
of  Sardis,  had  for  some  unknown  cause  conceived  a  deadly  hatred 
against  the  Samian  despot.  By  a  canning  stratagem  the  satrap 
allured  him  to  the  main  land,  where  he  was  immediately  arrested 
and  hanged  upon  a  cross  (b.c.  522). 

The  reign  of  Darius,  the  third  king  of  Persia  (b.c.  521-485),  is 
memorable  in  Grecian  history.  In  his  invasion  of  Scythia,  his 
fleet,  which  was  furnished  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  was  ordered  to 
sail  up  the  Danube  and  throw  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the  river. 
The  king  himself,  with  his  land  forces,  marched  through  Thrace  ; 
and,  crossing  the  bridge,  placed  it  under  the  care  of  the  Greeks, 
telling  them  that,  if  he  did  not  return  within  sixty  days,  they  might 
break  it  down  and  sail  home.  He  then  left  them,  and  penetrated 
into  the  Scythian  territory.  The  sixty  days  had  already  passed 
away,  and  there  was  yet  no  sign  of  the  Persian  army ;  but  shortly 
afterwards  the  Greeks  were  astonished  by  the  appearance  of  a  body 
of  Scythians,  who  informed  them  that  Darius  was  in  full  retreat, 
pursued  by  the  whole  Scythian  nation,  and  that  his  only  hope  of 
safety  depended  upon  that  bridge.  They  virged  the  Greeks  to 
seize  this  opportunity  of  destroying  the  Persian  army,  and  of  re- 
covering their  own  liberty,  by  breaking  down  the  bridge.  Their 
exhortations  were  warmly  seconded  by  the  Athenian  Mihiadcs,  the 
tyrant  of  the  Thraeian  Chersonesus,  and  the  future  conqueror  of 
Marathon.  The  other  rulers  of  the  Ionian  cities  were  at  first  dis- 
posed to  follow  his  suggestion  ;  but  as  soon  as  Histiajus  of  Miletus 
reminded  them  that  their  sovereignt}'  depended  upon  the  support 
of  the  Persian  king,  and  that  his  ruin  would  involve  their  ov>'n, 
they  changed  their  minds  and  resolved  to  await  the  Persians.  Aft- 
er enduring  great  privations  and  sufferings,  Darius  and  his  army 
at  length  reached  the  Danube  and  crossed  the  bridge  in  safety. 
Thus  the  selfishness  of  these  Grecian  despots  threw  away  the  most 
favourable  opportunity  that  ever  presented  itself  of  delivering  their 
native  cities  from  the  Persian  voke.  To  reward  the  services  of 
Histireus,  Darius'  gave  him  the  town  of  Myrcinus,  near  the  Stry^ 
mon.  Darius,  on  his  return  to  Asia,  left  Megabazus  in  Europe 
with  an  army  of  80,000  men  to  complete  the  subjugation  of  Thrace 
and  of  the  Greek  cities  upon  the  Hellespont.  Magabazus  not  only 
subdued  the  Thracians,  but  crossed  the  Strymon,  conquered  tho 
Pajonians,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  frontiers  of  ^lacedonia. 


48  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VI L 

lie  then  sent  heralds  into  the  latter  country  to  demand  earth  and 
water,  tlie  customary  symbols  of  submission.  These  were  im- 
mediately granted  by  Amyntas,  tlie  reigninf^  monarcli  (n.c.  />10); 
and  thus  the  Persian  dominions  were  extended  to  the  borders 
of  Thessaly.  Megabazus,  on  his  return  to  Savdis,  where  Darius 
awaited  him,  informed  the  Persian  monarcli  that  llistireus  was 
collectinf:^  tlie  elements  of  a  power  wliich  mipht  hereafter  jirove 
formidable  to  the  Persian  sovereignty,  since  Myrcinus  commanded 
the  navigation  of  the  Strymon,  and  consequently  the  commerce 
Avith  tbe  interior  of  Thrace.  Darius,  perceiving  that  the  appre- 
licnsions  of  his  general  were  not  without  foundation,  summoned 
llisti;\?as  to  his  presence,  and,  under  the  j)retext  tliat  he  could  not 
bear  to  be  deprived  of  the  corajiany  of  his  friend,  carried  him  with 
the  rest  of  the  court  toSusa.  This  apparently  trivial  circumstance 
was  attended  with  important  consequences  to  the  Persian  empire 
and  to  tlie  wliole  Grecian  race. 

Por  tlie  next  few  years  everything  remained  quiet  in  the  Greek 
cities  of  Asia ;  but  about  n.c.  502  a  revolution  in  Naxos,  one  of  the 
islands  in  the  T^^gean  Sea,  first  disturbed  the  general  repose,  and 
occasioned  the  war  between  Greece  and  Asia.  The  avistocratical 
exiles,  Avho  liad  been  driven  out  of  Naxos  by  a  risiug  of  the  ]»cople, 
applied  for  aid  to  Aristagoras,  the  tyrant  of  IMilctus  and  the  son- 
in-Uiw  of  Ilistiajus.  Aristagoras  readily  promised  his  assistance, 
knowing  that,  if  they  were  restored  by  his  means,  he  should  be- 
come master  of  the  island.  He  obtained  the  co-operation  of  Arta- 
phcrnes,  tlie  satrap  of  western  Asia,  by  holding  out  to  liim  the 
prosj)eet  of  annexing  not  only  Naxos,  but  all  the  islands  of  tlic 
JKpcan  Sea,  to  the  Persian  empire.  He  oilcred  at  the  same  time 
to  defray  the  expense  of  the  armament.  Arta[)hernes  jdaced  at 
his  disposal  a  fleet  of  200  ships,  under  the  command  of  Mei:ab:ites, 
a  Persian  of  high  rank  ;  but  Aristagoras  having  affronted  the  Per- 
sian admiral,  the  latter  revenged  himself  by  i)rivately  informing 
the  Naxians  of  the  object  of  the  expedition,  which  had  hitherto 
been  kept  a  secret.  When  the  Persian  fleet  reached  Naxos  they 
cxijeiienccd  a  vigorous  resistance  ;  and  at  the  end  of  four  months 
they  were  compelled  to  al)andou  the  enterprise  and  return  to 
Miletus.  Aristagoras  was  now  threatened  with  utter  ruin.  Ihiv^ 
ing  deceived  Arta]»hernes,  and  incurred  the  enmity  of  Mcgabates, 
lie  could  expect  no  favour  from  the  Persian  govcnimcnt,  and  might 
be  called  upon  at  any  moment  to  defray  the  ex]icnscs  of  the  arm- 
ament. In  those  dilliculties  he  began  to  think  of  exciting  a  re- 
volt of  his  countrymen  ;  and  while  revolving  the  jirojcct  he  re- 
ceived u  message  from  his  father-in-law,  Histiieus,  urging  him  to 
tliis  very  step.      Afraid  of  trusting  any  one  with  so  dangerous  a 


B.C.  499.  BURNING  OF  SARDIS.  4d 

message,  Histiasus  had  shaved  the  head  of  a  trusty  slave,  branded 
upon  it  the  necessary  words,  and  as  soon  as  the  hair  liad  grown 
again  sent  liim  off  to  Miletus.  His  only  motive  for  urging  the 
lonians  to  revolt  was  the  desire  of  escaping  from  captivity  at  Susa, 
thinking  that  Darius  would  set  him  at  liberty  in  order  to  put  down 
an  insurrection  of  his  countrymen.  The  message  from  Histiaeua 
fixed  the  wavering  resolution  of  Aristagoras.  He  forthwith  call- 
ed together  the  leading  citizens  of  Miletus,  laid  before  them  the 
project  of  revolt,  and  asked  them  for  advice.  They  all  approved 
of  the  scheme  with  the  exception  of  Hecatajus,  one  of  the  earliest 
Greek  historians.  Aristagoras  laid  down  the  supreme  power  in 
Miletus,  and  nominally  resigned  to  the  people  the  management  of 
their  own  affairs.  A  democratical  form  of  government  was  estab- 
lished in  the  other  Greek  cities  of  Asia,  which  thereupon  openly 
revolted  fi-om  Persia  (b.c.  500). 

Aristagoras  now  resolved  to  cross  over  to  Greece,  in  order  to  so- 
licit assistance.  The  Spartans,  to  whom  lie  first  applied,  refused 
to  take  any  part  in  the  war;  but  at  Athens  he  met  with  a  very 
different  reception.  The  Athenians  sympathized  with  the  lonians 
as  their  kinsmen  and  colonists,  and  were  incensed  against  the  sa- 
trap Artaphemcs,  Avho  had  recently  commanded  them  to  recall 
Hippias.  Accordingly,  tlicy  voted  to  send  a  squadron  of  twenty 
ships  to  the  assistance  of  the  lonians ;  and  in  the  following  year 
(i?.c.  499)  this  fleet,  accompanied  by  five  ships  from  Eretria  in 
Euboea,  crossed  the  JEgean.  The  troops  landed  at  Ephesus,  and, 
being  re-enforced  by  a  strong  body  of  lonians,  marched  npon  Sar- 
dis.  Artaphernes  was  taken  vmprepared;  and  not  having  suflS- 
cient  troops  to  man  the  Avails,  he  retired  into  the  citadel,  leaving 
the  town  a  prey  to  the  invaders.  Accordingly,  they  entered  it  im- 
©pposed  ;  and  v/hile  engaged  in  pillage,  one  of  the  soldiers  set  fire 
to  a  house.  As  most  of  the  houses  were  built  of  wickerwork  and 
thatclied  with  straw,  the  flames  rapidly  spread,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  whole  city  was  in  flames.  The  Greeks,  on  their  return  to  the 
coast,  were  overtaken  by  a  large  Persian  force  and  defeated  with 
great  slaughter.  The  Athenians  hastened  on  board  their  ships 
and  sailed  home. 

When  Darius  heard  of  the  burning  of  Sardis,  he  burst  into  a 
paroxysm  of  rage.  It  was  against  the  obscure  strangers  who  had 
dared  to  burn  one  of  his  capitals  that  his  wrath  was  chiefly  direct- 
ed. "The  Athenians!"  he  exclaimed,  "■who  am  t/tei/f'  Upon 
being  informed,  he  took  his  bow,  shot  an  arrow  high  into  the  air, 
saying,  "Grant  me,  Jove,  to  take  vengeance  upon  the  Athenians!" 
And  he  charged  one  of  his  attendants  to  remind  him  tlirice  every 
day  at  dinner,  "  Sire,  remember  the  Athenians."     Mean<^imc  tho 

D 


60  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VIL 

insurrection  spread  to  the  Greek  cities  in  Cyprus,  as  well  as  to 
those  on  the  Hellespont  and  the  Propontis,  and  seemed  to  prom- 
'ise  permanent  independence  to  the  Asiatic  Greeks;  but  they  were 
no  match  for  the  whole  power  of  the  Persian  empire,  which  was 
soon  brought  against  them.  Cyprus  was  subdued,  and  siege  laid 
to  the  cities  upon  the  coast  of  Asia.  Aristagoras  now  began  to 
despair,  and  basely  deserted  his  countrymen,  whom  he  had  led 
into  peril.  Collecting  a  large  body  of  Milesians,  he  set  sail  for 
the  Thracian  coast,  where  he  was  slain  under  the  walls  of  a  town 
to  which  he  had  laid  siege.  Soon  after  his  departure,  his  father- 
in-law,  Ilistiajus,  came  down  to  the  coast.  The  artful  Greek  not 
only  succeeded  in  removing  the  suspicions  which  Darius  first  en- 
tertained respecting  him,  but  he  persuaded  the  king  to  send  him 
into  Ionia,  in  order  to  assist  the  Persian  generals  in  suppressing 
the  rebellion.  Artaphernes,  liowcver,  was  not  so  easily  deceived 
as  his  master,  and  plainly  accused  Jlistiitus  of  treacher\'  when  the 
latter  arrived  at  Sardis.  "I  will  tell  you  how  the  facts  stand," 
said  Artaphernes  to  Ilistia^us;  "it  was  you  who  made  the  shoe, 
and  Aristagoras  has  put  it  on."  Finding  himself  unsafe  at  Sar- 
dis, he  escaped  to  tlic  island  of  Chios;  but  he  was  regarded  with 
6usi)icion  by  all  parties.  At  length  he  obtained  eight  galleys  from 
Lesbos,  with  which  he  sailed  towards  Byzantium,  and  carried  on 
piracies  as  well  against  the  Grecian  as  the  barbarian  vessels. 
This  unprincipled  adventurer  met  with  a  traitor's  death.  Having 
land -d  on  the  coast  of  Mysia,  he  was  sur})riscd  by  a  Persian  force 
and  made  prisoner.  Being  carried  to  Sardis,  Artajdiernes  at  once 
caused  him  to  be  crucified,  and  sent  his  head  to  Darius,  who  or- 
dered it  to  be  honourably  buried,  condemning  the  ignominious  ex- 
ecution of  the  man  who  had  once  saved  the  life  of  the  Great  King. 
In  the  sixth  year  of  tlie  revolt  (ii.c.  41)r>),  when  several  Grecian 
cities  had  already  been  taken  by  the  I'ersians,  Artai>hernes  laid 
siege  to  Miletus  by  sea  and  by  land.  A  naval  engagement  took 
place  at  Lade,  a  small  island  off  Miletus,  which  decided  the  fate 
of  ihe  war.  The  Samians  deserted  at  the  commencement  of  the 
battle,  and  the  Ionian  fleet  was  completely  defeated.  Miletus 
was  soon  aftenvards  taken,  and  was  treated  with  signal  severity. 
Most  of  the  males  were  slain ;  and  the  few  who  escaped  the  sword 
were  carried  with  tlic  women  and  children  into  captivity  (n.c. 
41)4).  The  other  Greek  cities  in  Asia  and  the  neighbouring  isl- 
ands were  treated  witli  the  same  cruelty.  The  islands  of  Ciiios, 
Lesbos,  and  Tenedos  were  swejit  of  their  inhabitants  ;  and  the  Per- 
sian fleet  sailed  up  to  the  Hellespont  and  Propontis,  earning  with 
it  lire  and  sword.  Tlie  Athenian  Miltiadcs  only  esca])ed  falling 
into  the  power  of  the  Persians  by  a  rajiid  Higlit  to  Athens. 


B.C.  490.  INVASION  OF  GREECE.  51 

The  subiufi:ation  of  Ionia  was  now  complete.  Tbis  vas  the 
third  time  that  the  Asiatic  Greeks  had  been  conquered  by  a  -foreign 
power ;  first  by  the  Lydian  Croesus ;  secondly  by  the  generals  of 
Cyrus;  and  lastly  by  those  of  Darius.  It  was  from  the  last  that 
they  suffered  most,  and  they  never  fully  recovered  their  former 
prosperity. 

Darius  was  now  at  liberty  to  take  A'engeance  upon  the  Atheni- 
ans. He  appointed  Mardonius  to  succeed  Arta])hernes  as  satrap 
in  western  Asia,  and  ht  placed  under  his  command  a  large  arma- 
ment, with  injunctions  to  bring  to  Susa  those  Athenians  and  Ere- 
trians  who  had  insulted  the  authority  of  the  Great  King.  Mar- 
donius, after  crossing  the  Hellespont,  commenced  his  march 
through  Tlirace  and  Macedonia,  subduing,  as  he  Avent  along,  the 
tribes  which  had  not  yet  submitted  to  the  Persian  power.  He 
ordered  the  fleet  to  double  the  promontory  of  Mount  Athos,  and 
join  the  land  forces  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  The.vma ;  but  one 
of  the  hurricanes  which  frequently  blow  off  this  dangerous  coast 
overtook  the  Persian  fleet,  destroyed  300  vessels,  and  drowned  or 
dashed  upon  the  rocks  20,000  men.  Meantime  the  land  forces 
of  Mardonius  had  suffered  so  much  from  an  attack  made  upon 
them  by  a  Thracian  tribe,  that  he  could  not  proceed  farther.  He 
led  his  army  back  across  the  Hellespont,  and  returned  to  the  Per- 
sian court  covered  with  shame  and  grief  (b.c.  492). 

The  failure  of  this  expedition  did  not  shake  the  resolution  of 
Darius.  He  began  to  make  preparations  for  another  attempt  on  a 
still  larger  scale,  and  meantime  sent  heralds  to  most  of  the  Grecian 
states  to  demand  from  each  earth  and  water  as  the  symbol  of  sub- 
mission. Such  terror  had  the  Persians  inspired  by  their  recent 
conquest  of  Ionia,  that  a  large  number  of  the  Grecian  cities  sJ 
once  complied  with  the  demand  ;  but  the  Athenians  cast  the  her- 
ald into  a  deep  pit,  and  the  Spartans  threw  him  into  a  well,  bid- 
ding him  take  earth  and  water  from  thence. 

In  the  spring  of  b.c.  490  a  large  army  and  fleet  were  assembled 
in  Cilicia,  and  the  command  was  given  to  Datis,  a  Median,  and 
Artaphernes,  son  of  the  satrap  of  Sardis  of  that  name.  "Warned 
by  the  recent  disaster  of  Mardonius  in  doubling  the  promontory 
of  Mount  Athos,  they  resolved  to  sail  straight  across  the  ^gean 
to  Euboea,  subduing  on  their  way  the  Cyclades.  These  islands 
yielded  a  ready  submission  ;  and  it  was  not  till  Datis  and  Arta- 
phernes reached  Euboea  that  they  encountered  any  resistance. 
Eretria  defended  itself  gallantly  for  six  days,  and  repulsed  the 
Persians  with  loss ;  but  on  the  seventh  the  gates  were  opened  to 
the  besiegers  by  the  treacheiy  of  two  of  its  leading  citizens.  The 
city  was  ray.*^'^'   to  tb "   ground,  and  the  inhabitants  were  put  iu 


52  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VII. 

chains.  From  Eretria  the  Persians  crossed  over  to  Attica,  and 
landed  on  the  ever  memorable  i)lain  of  Maratlion,  a  spot  ^vhich 
had  been  pointed  out  to  them  by  the  despot  Ilippias,  who  accom- 
panied the  array. 

As  soon  as  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Eretria  reached  Alliens,  a 
courier  had  been  sent  to  Sparta  to  solicit  assistance.  This  was 
j)romised ;  but  tlie  superstition  of  the  Spartans  ju-eventcd  tliom 
from  setting  out  immediately,  since  it  wanted  a  few  days  to  the  full 
moon,  and  it  was  contrary  to  their  religious  customs  to  commence 
a  march  during  this  interval.  Meantime  the  Athenians  had 
marched  to  Marathon",  and  Avere  encamped  upon  the  mountains 
wliich  surrounded  tlie  plain.  They  were  commanded,  according 
to  the  regular  custom,  by  ten  generals,  one  for  each  tribe,  and  by 
the  Rolemarch,  or  third  Archon,  wl  d  down  to  this  time  continued 
to  be  a  colleague  of  tlie  generals.  Among  tlicse  the  most  distin- 
guished was  Mihiades,  who,  though  but  lately  a  tyrant  in  tlie  Cher- 
Bonesus,  had  shown  such  energy  and  ability,  that  the  Athenians 
had  elected  him  one  of  their  commanders  ui)on  the  approach  of 
the  Persian  fleet.  Upon  learning  the  answer  which  the  courier 
brought  from  S])arta,  the  ten  generals  were  divided  in  oj.inion. 
Five  of  them  were  opposed  to  an  immediate  engagement  with  the 
overwhelming  number  of  Persians,  and  urged  the  importance  of 
waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  Lacedaemonian  succours.  Miltiades 
and  the  remaining  four  contended  that  not  a  moment  should  be 
lost  in  fighting  the  I'ersians,  not  only  in  order  to  aA'ail  themselves 
of  the  present  enthusiasm  of  the  jjcoj-le,  but  still  more  to  prevent 
treachery  from  spreading  among  their  ranks.  Callimachus,  the 
Polemarch,  yielded  to  the  arguments  of  Miltiades,  and  ffave  his 
vote  for  the  battle.  The  ten  generals  commanded  their  army  in 
rotation,  eacli  for  one  day ;  but  tlicy  now  agreed  to  surrender  to 
Miltiades  their  days  of  command,  in  order  to  invest  the  whole 
power  in  a  single  person.  While  the  Athenians  were  preparing 
for  battle,  they  received  unexpected  assistance  from  the  little  town 
of  I'latica,  in  Bfcotia.  Grateful  to  Ihc  Athenians  for  the  assist- 
ance whicli  tlicy  had  rendered  ihem  against  the  'JMu-bans,  the 
whole  force  of  I'lataja,  amounting  to  1000  heavy-armed  men, 
marched  to  the  assistance  of  their  allies  and  joined  them  at  Mar- 
athon. The  Athenian  army  only  numbered  10,000  liopiitcs,  or 
hcavr-armed  soldiers:  there  were  no  archers  or  cavalry,  iiiid  only 
Fomo  slaves  as  light-armed  attciuhints.  Of  the  number  of  the 
Persian  army  we  have  no  trustworthy  account,  but  the  lowest  esti- 
mate makes  it  consist  of  1 10,000  men. 

Tne  ]>lain  of  Marathon  lies  on  the  eastern  const  of  Attica,  at 
the  distance  of  twentv-two  miles  from  Athens  bv  the  shortest  road. 


B.C. 490. 


BATTLE  OF  MARATHON. 


53 


It  is  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  the  hon:s  of  which  consist  of  two 
promontories  running  into  the  sea,  and  forming  a  semicircular 
buy.  This  plain  is  about  six  miles  in  lengtb,  and  in  its  widest  or 
central  part  about  two  in  breadth.  On  the  day  of  battle  the  Per- 
sian army  was  diawn  up  along  the  plain  about  a  mile  from  the 
sea,  and  their  fleet  was  ranged  behind  them  on  the  beach.  The 
Athenians  occupied  the  rising  ground  aboA'C  the  plain,  and  ex- 
tended from  one  side  of  the  plain  to  the  other.    This  arrangement 


Plan  of  the  Battle  of  Marathon. 

was  necessary  in  order  to  protect  their  flanks  by  the  mountains  on 
each  side,  and  to  prevent  the  cavalry  from  passing  round  to  atf-ack 
them  in  rear.  But  so  large  a  breadth  of  ground  could  net  be  oc- 
cupied with  so  small  a  number  of  men  without  weakening  some 
portion  of  the  line.  Miltiades,  therefore,  drew  up  the  troops  in 
the  centre  in  shallow  files,  and  resolved  to  rely  for  success  upon 
the  stronger  and  deeper  masses  of  his  wings.  The  right  wing, 
which  was  the  post  of  honour  in  a  Grecian  aiTny,  was  commanded 
by  the  Polemarch  Callimachus ;  the  lioplites  were  arranged  in  the 


54  mSTOIlY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VH 

order  of  iheir  tribes,  so  that  the  members  of  the  same  tribe  fought 
by  each  other's  side ;  and  at  the  extreme  left  stood  tlie  rhitneans. 

Miltiadcs,  anxious  to  come  to  close  quarters  as  speedily  as  pos- 
fiible,  ordered  his  soldiers  to  advance  at  a  running  step  over  the 
mile  of  ground  which  separated  them  from  the  foe.  Both  the 
Athenian  wings  were  successful,  and  drove  the  enemy  before  tliera 
towards  the  shore  and  the  marshes.  But  the  Athenian  centre  was 
broken  by  the  Persians,  and  compelled  to  take  to  flight.  Mil- 
tiades  thereupon  recalled  his  wings  from  pursuit,  and  charged  the 
Persian  centre.  The  latter  could  not  withstand  this  combined  at- 
tack. The  rout(^  now  became  general  along  the  Avliole  Persian 
line ;   and  they  fled  to  their  ships,  pursued  by  the  Athenians. 

The  Persians  lost  G400  men  in  this  memorable  engagement  •. 
of  the  Athenians  only  192  fell.  The  aged  tyrant  Ilippias  is  said 
to  have  perished  in  the  battle,  and  tlic  brave  Polemarch  Calli- 
machus  Avas  also  one  of  the  slain.  The  Persians  embarked  and 
sailed  away  to  Asia.  Their  departure  was  hailed  at  Athens  with 
one  unanimous  burst  of  heartfelt  joy.  Marathon  became  a  magic 
word  at  Athens.  The  Athenian  people  in  succeeding  ages  al- 
ways looked  back  u])on  this  day  as  the  most  glorious  in  their  an- 
nals, and  never  tired  of  hearing  its  praises  sounded  by  their  ora- 
tors and  poets.  And  they  had  reason  to  be  proud  of  it.  It  was 
the  first  time  that  the  Greeks  had  e\ev  defeated  the  Persians  in 
the  field.  It  Avas  the  exploit  of  the  Athenians  alone.  It  had  saA'cd 
not  only  Athens,  but  all  Greece.  If  tlie  Persians  had  conquered 
at  Marathon,  Greece  must,  in  all  likelihood,  have  become  a  Per- 
sian province  ;  the  destinies  or  ihe  Avorld  Avould  have  been  clianged ; 
and  oriental  despotism  might  still  have  brooded  OA'er  the  faircsi 
countries  of  Europe. 

The  one  hundred  and  ninety-tAvo  Athenians  Avho  had  perished 
in  the  battle  Avcre  buried  on  the  field,  and  over  their  remains  a 
tumulus  or  mound  Avas  erected,  Avhieh  may  still  be  seen  about  half 
a  mile  from  the  sea. 

Shortly  after  the  battle  Miltiadcs  requested  of  the  Athcniano  a 
fleet  of  seventy  ships,  Avithout  telling  them  the  object  of  his  expe- 
dition, but  only  promising  to  enrich  the  state.  Such  unbounded 
confidence  did  the  Athenians  repose  in  the  hero  of  Maratlion, 
tiiat  they  at  once  comjdied  Avith  his  demand.  This  confidence 
INIiltiades  abused.  In  order  to  gratify  a  ])rivate  animosity  against 
one  of  the  leading  citizens  of  Paros,  he  sailed  to  this  island  und 
laid  siege  to  the  town.  The  citizens  rej)elled  all  his  attacks; 
and  having  rcceiAcd  a  dangerous  injury  on  his  thigh,  he  Avas  com- 
pelled to  raise  the  siege  r^nd  return  to  Atiiens.  Loud  Avas  the  in- 
dignation against  Miltiadcs  on  his  return.      lie  was  accused  by 


B.C.  483.  BANISHMENT  OF  ARISTIDES.  65 

Xanthippvas,  the  father  of  Pericles,  of  having  deceived  the  people, 
and  was  brought  to  trial.  His  wound  had  already  begun  to  show 
symptoms  of  gangrene.  He  was  carried  into  court  on  a  couch, 
and  there  lay  before  the  assembled  judges,  while  his  friends  plead- 
ed on  his  behalf.  They  could  offer  no  excuse  for  his  recent  con- 
duct, but  they  reminded  the  Athenians  of  the  sen'ices  he  had  ren- 
dered, and  begged  them  to  spare  the  victor  of  Marathon.  The 
judges  were  not  insensible  to  this  appeal ;  and  instead  of  con- 
demning him  to  death,  as  the  accuser  had  demanded,  they  com- 
muted the  penalty  to  a  fine  of  fifty  talents.  Miltiades  was  unable 
immediately  to  raise  this  sum,  and  died  soon  afterwards  of  his 
wound.  The  fine  was  subsequently  paid  by  his  son  Cimon.  The 
melancholy  end  of  Miltiades  must  not  blind  us  to  his  offence.  He 
had  grossly  abused  the  public  confidence,  and  deserA^ed  his  punish- 
ment. The  Athenians  did  not  forget  his  services  at  Marathon, 
and  it  was  their  gratitude  towards  him  which  alone  saved  hira 
from  death. 

Soon  after  the  battle  of  Marathon  a  war  broke  out  between 
Athens  and  iEgina.  This  war  is  of  great  importance  in  Grecian 
history,  since  to  it  the  Athenians  were  indebted  for  their  na^y, 
which  enabled  them  to  save  Greece  at  Salamis  as  they  had  already 
done  at  Marathon.  ^Egina  was  one  of  the  chief  maritime  powers 
in  Greece ;  and  accordingly  Themistocles  urged  the  Athenians  to 
build  and  equip  a  large  and  powerful  fleet,  without  which  it  Avas 
impossible  for  them  to  humble  their  riA-al.  There  Avas  at  this  time 
a  large  surplus  in  the  public  treasury,  arising  from  the  produce  of 
the  sih'er-mines  at  Laurium.  It  had  been  recently  proposed  to 
distribute  this  surplus  among  the  Athenian  citizens  ;  but  Themis- 
tocles persuaded  them  to  sacrifice  their  priA-ate  advantage  to  the 
public  good,  and  to  appropriate  this  money  to  building  a  fleet  of 
200  ships. 

The  tAvo  leading  citizens  of  Athens  at  this  period  AA'ere  Themis- 
tocles and  Aristides.  These  two  eminent  men  formed  a  striking 
conti-ast  to  each  other.  Themistocles  possessed  abilities  of  the 
most  extraordinary  kind ;  but  they  Avere  marred  by  a  Avant  of 
honesty.  Aristides  Avas  inferior  to  Themistocles  in  ability,  but 
Avas  incomparably  superior  to  him  in  honesty  and  integrity.  His 
uprightness  and  justice  were  so  uniA'crsally  acknowledged  that  he 
received  the  surname  of  the  "Just."  Themistocles  AA-as  the  leader 
of  the  democratical,  and  Aristides  of  the  conserA'ati\'e  party  at 
Athens.  After  three  or  four  A-ears  of  bitter  riA^alrv,  the  two  chiefs 
appealed  to  the  ostracism,  and  Aristides  Avas  banished  (n.c.  483). 
We  arc  told  that  an  unlettered  countryman  gaA^e  his  vote  against 
Ai'istides  at  the  ostracism  because,  he  Avas  tired  of  hearing  him  al- 
)fvays  called  the  Just. 


Greek  Soldier.     (From  an  ancient  VajJC.) 


CIIAl^TER  Ylll. 

THE   PERSIAN   AVARS. — THE    BATTLES    OF    TIIFRMOrYL^,    SALAMI3, 
AND   PLAT^A,  15. C.   4S0-479. 

The  defeat  of  the  rersiaiis  at  Jfarathon  sciTcd  only  to  increase 
the  resentment  of  Darius.  lie  now  resolved  to  collect  the  wholft 
forces  of  his  emi)irc,  and  to  lead  them  in  person  aj^ainst  Athens. 
For  three  years  busy  preparations  were  made  throu<;hout  his  vast 
dominions.  In  the  fourth  year  his  attention  was  distracted  by  a 
revolt  of  the  Egyptians  ;  and  before  he  could  reduce  them  to  sub- 
jection he  was  surjjrised  l)y  death,  after  a  reijjjn  of  37  years  (ii.c. 
48r>).  Xerxes,  the  son  and  successor  of  Darius,  had  received  the 
education  of  an  eastern  despot,  and  been  surrounded  with  slave* 
from  his  cradle.  In  person  he  was  the  tallest  and  handsomest 
man  amidst  the  vast  hosts  which  he  led  npainst  Greece  ;  but  there 
was  nothin<;  in  his  mind  to  corrcsjjond  to  this  fair  exterior.  His 
character  was  marked  by  f:iint-hearted  timidity  and  childish  vanity. 
Xerxes  had  not  inherited  his  father's  animosity  against  Greece  ; 
])ut  he  was  surrounded  by  men  who  urged  liim  to  continue  the  en- 
terprise.    Foremost  among  these  was  Mardonius,  who  was  eager 


B.C.  480.  INVASION  OF  XERXES.  57 

to  retrieve  his  reputation,  and  to  obtain  the  conquered  country  as 
a  satrapy  for  himself.  After  subduing  Egypt  (b.c.  484),  Xerxes 
began  to  make  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Greece.  For  four 
years  the  din  of  preparation  sounded  throughout  Asia.  Troops 
were  collected  from  every  quarter  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  were 
ordered  to  assemble  in  Cappadocia.  As  many  as  forty-six  dif- 
ferent nations  composed  the  land-force,  of  vaiuous  complexions, 
languages,  dresses,  and  arms.  Meantime  Xerxes  ordered  a  bridge 
to  be  thrown  across  the  Hellespont,  that  his  army  might  march 
from  Asia  into  Europe ;  and  he  likewise  gave  directions  that  a 
canal  should  be  cut  through  the  isthmus  of  Mount  Athos,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  necessity  of  doubling  this  dangerous  promontory, 
Avhere  the  fleet  of  Mardonius  had  suffered  shipwreck.  The  mak- 
ing of  this  canal,  which  was  about  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  employ- 
ed a  number  of  men  for  tlirce  years. 

In  the  spring  of  b.c.  480  Xerxes  set  out  from  Sardis  with  his 
vast  host.  Upon  reaching  Abydos  on  the  Hellespont,  the  araiy 
crossed  over  to  Europe  by  the  bridge  of  boats.  Xerxes  surveyed 
the  s?ene  from  a  marble  throne.  His  heart  swelled  v.'ithin  him  at 
the  sight  of  such  a  vast  assemblage  of  hiiman  beings  ;  but  his  feel- 
ings of  pride  and  pleasure  soon  gave  way  to  sadness,  and  he  burst 
into  tears  at  the  reflection  that  in  a  hundred  years  not  one  of 
them  would  be  alive.  Xerxes  continued  his  march  through  Eu- 
rope along  the  coast  of  Thrace.  Upon  arriving  at  the  spacious 
plain  of  Doriscus,  Avhich  is  travei'sed  by  the  liiver  Hebrus,  he  re- 
solved to  number  his  forces.  He  found  that  the  Avhole  armament, 
both  military  and  naval,  consisted  of  2,317,610  men.  In  his 
march  from  Doriscus  to  Thermopylie  ho  received  a  still  further 
accession  of  strength;  and  accordingly,  when  he  reached  Ther- 
mopylae, the  land  and  sea  forces  amounted  to  2,G4],G10  fighting 
men.  The  attendants  are  said  to  have  been  more  in  number  than 
the  fighting  men  ;  but  if  they  were  only  equal,  the  number  of  per- 
sons who  accompanied  Xerxes  to  Thermopylae  reaches  the  astound- 
ing figure  of  5,283,220!  This  number  is  quite  incredible;  but, 
though  the  exact  number  of  the  invading  anny  cannot  be  determ- 
ined, we  may  safely  conclude,  from  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
case,  that  it  was  the  largest  ever  assembled  at  any  period  of  history. 

From  Doriscus  Xerxes  continued  his  march  along  the  coast 
through  Tiirace  and  Macedonia.  The  principal  cities  through 
which  he  passed  had  to  furnish  a  day's  meal  for  the  immense  host, 
and  for  this  purpose  had  made  preparations  many  months  before- 
hand. The  cost  of  feeding  such  a  multitude  brought  many  cities 
to  the  brink  of  ruin.  At  Acanthus  his  fleet  sailed  through  the 
isthmus  of  Athos,  and,  after  doubling  the  promontories  of  Sithonia 


68  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VIII. 

and  Pallene,  joined  him  at  the  city  of  Thcrma,  better  known  by  its 
later  name  of  Thessalonica.  Thence  he  continued  his  march 
tluough  tlic  soutliern  part  of  Macedonia  andTliessaly,  meeting  with 
no  opposition  till  he  reached  the  celebrated  pass  of  Thermoj)yla?. 

The  mighty  prejjarations  of  Xerxes  had  been  no  secret  in  Greece ; 
and  during  the  preceding  winter  a  congress  of  the  Grecian  states 
liad  Ixicn  summoned  by  the  Spartans  and  Athenians  to  meet  at  the 
isthmus  of  Corintli.  But  so  great  was  the  terror  inspired  by  the 
countless  hosts  of  Xerxes,  that  many  of  the  Grecian  states  at  once 
tendered  their  submission  to  him,  and  others  refused  to  take  any 
])art  in  the  congress.  The  only  i)Cople  north  of  the  istlimus  of 
Corinth  who  remained  faithful  to  the  cause  of  Grecian  liberty 
•were  the  Athenians  and  Phocians,  and  tlie  inliabitants  of  the  small 
Boeotian  towns  of  Plataia  and  Thespiaj.  The  other  people  in 
northern  Greece  were  either  partisans  of  the  Persians,  like  the 
Thebans,  or  were  unwilling  to  make  any  great  sacrifices  for  tlic 
j)reservation  of  their  independence.  In  Pchijionnesus,  the  power- 
ful city  of  Argos  and  the  Acluvans  stood  aloof.  From  the  more 
distant  members  of  the  Hellenic  race  no  assistance  was  obtained. 
(Jelon,  the  ruler  of  Syracuse,  oflbred  to  send  a  ])owerfiil  armament, 
])rovided  the  command  of  the  allied  forces  was  intrusted  to  him  ; 
but  the  envoys  did  not  venture  to  accept  a  jiroposal  which  would 
have  placed  both  Sparta  and  Athens  under  the  control  of  a  Sicil- 
ian tyrant. 

The  desertion  of  the  cause  of  Grecian  independence  by  so  many 
of  the  Greeks  did  not  shake  the  resolution  of  Sparta  and  of  Athens. 
The  Athenians,  csjjecially,  set  a  noble  cxamjile  of  an  enlarged 
patriotism.  They  became  reconciled  to  the  JEginetans,  and  thus 
gained  for  the  common  cause  the  powerful  navy  of  their  riA'al. 
They  readily  granted  to  the  Sjiartans  the  sujjreme  command  of  the 
forces  by  sea  as  well  as  by  land,  although  they  furnished  two  thirds 
of  the  vessels  of  the  entire  lleet.  Their  illustrious  citizen  Themis- 
tocles  was  the  soul  of  the  congress.  He  sought  to  enkindle  in 
the  other  Greeks  some  portion  of  the  ardour  and  energy  which  ho 
had  succeeded  in  breathing  into  the  Athenians. 

The  Greeks  determined  to  make  a  stand  at  the  ]iass  of  Ther- 
mojtyla.',  which  forms  the  entrance  from  nortliern  into  southern 
Greece.  This  pass  lies  betw'een  INfount  QCta  and  the  sea.  It  is 
tibout  a  mile  in  length.  At  each  of  its  extremities  the  mountains 
a])])roach  so  near  the  sea  as  to  leave  barely  room  for  the  passage 
of  a  single  carriage.  The  northern,  or,  to  speak  more  j)roperly, 
tlie  western  Gate,  was  close  to  tlie  town  of  Anthela,  where  the 
Amjjhictyonic  council  held  its  autumnal  meetings;  while  the  south- 
ern, or  the  eastern  Gate,  was  near  the  Locrian  town  of  Alpeiu 


B.C.  480. 


THE  PASS  OF  TIIERMOPYLJE. 


59 


These  narrow  entrances  were  called  PyliC,  or  the  Gates,  The 
space  between  the  gates  was  wider  and  more  open,  and  was  dis- 
tiiiguislied  by  its  hot  springs,  from  which  tlie  pass  derived  the 
name  of  ThermopyhTj.  or  the  "  Hot-Gates."  The  island  of  Euboea 
is  here  separated  f»-om  the  main  land  by  a  narrow  strait,  which  in 
one  part  is  only  two  miles  and  a  half  in  breadth ;  and  according- 
ly it  is  easy,  by  defending  this  part  of  the  sea  with  a  fleet,  to  pre- 
vent an  enemy  from  landing  troops  at  tlie  southern  end  of  the  pass. 


Plan  of  Themiopylie. 


The  Grecian  fleet,  under  tlie  command  of  the  Spartan  Eury- 
l)iadcs,  took  up  its  station  off  that  portion  of  the  northern  coast  of 
Euboea  which  faces  Magnesia  and  the  entrance  to  the  Thessalian 
Gulf,  and  which  was  called  Artemisium,  from  a  neighbouring  tem- 
)de  of  Artemis  (Diana).  It  was,  liowcA'er,  only  a  small  land-force 
that  was  sent  to  the  defence  of  Thermopyla;.  When  the  arrival 
of  Xerxes  at  Therma  became  known,  the  Greeks  were  i;pon  the 
point  of  celebrating  the  Olympic  games,  and  the  festival  of  the 
Carnean  Apollo,  which  was  observed  with  great  solemnity  at  Si)arta 
and  in  other  Doric  states.  The  Peloponnesians  tlierefore  sent 
forward  only  300  Spartans  and  3000  hoplites  from  other  Pelopon- 
nesian  states,  tinder  the  command  of  the  Spartan  king  Leonidas, 
a  force  which  they  thought  would  be  sufiicient  to  maintain  the  pass 
till  the  festivals  were  over.  In  his  march  northwards  Leonidas 
received  additions  from  the  Thespians,  Phocians,  and  Locrians,  so 
that  he  had  under  his  command  at  Thermopylae  about  7000  men. 

Meanwhile  Xerxes  had  arrived  within  sight  of  Therino])yla;. 


60  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VIIL 

He  had  heard  that  a  handful  of  desperate  men,  commanded  hy  a 
Spartan,  had  determined  to  dispute  his  passapje,  but  he  refused  to 
believe  the  news.  He  was  still  more  astonished  when  a  horseman, 
whom  he  had  sent  to  reconnoitre,  brought  back  word  that  he  had 
seen  several  Spartans  outside  the  wall  in  front  of  the  pass,  some 
amusing  themselves  with  gymnastic  exercises,  and  others  combing 
tlieir  long  hair.  In  great  perj)lexity,  he  sent  for  the  exiled  Sj)artaQ 
king  Demaratus,  who  had  accomjjanied  him  from  Persia,  and  ask- 
ed him  the  meaning  of  such  madness.  Demaratus  replied  that  the 
Spartans  would  defend  the  pass  to  the  death,  and  tliat  it  was  their 
practice  to  dress  their  heads  with  peculiar  care  when  they  were 
going  to  battle.  Later  writers  relate  that  Xerxes  sent  to  them  to 
deliver  up  their  anns,  Leonidas  desired  him  "to  come  and  take 
them."  One  of  tlie  Spartans  being  told  that  "  the  Persian  host 
was  so  prodigious  that  their  arrows  would  conceal  the  sun" — 
"So  much  the  better"  (he  replied),  "we  shall  then  fight  in  the 
shade." 

At  length,  upon  the  fifth  day,  Xerxes  oi'dercd  a  chosen  body  of 
Modes  to  advance  against  the  presumi)tuous  foes  and  bring  them 
into  liis  presence.  But  their  superior  numbers  were  of  no  avail  in 
such  a  narrow  space,  and  they  were  kept  at  bay  by  the  long  spears 
and  steady  ranks  of  the  Greeks.  After  the  combat  had  lasted  a 
long  time  with  heavy  loss  to  the  Ivledes,  Xerxes  ordered  his  ten 
thousand  "Immortals,"  the  flower  of  the  Persian  army,  to  ad- 
vance. But  they  were  as  unsuccessful  as  the  Modes.  Xerxes  be- 
held tlie  repulse  of  his  troops  from  a  lofty  throne  which  had  been 
provided  for  him,  and  v.as  seen  to  leap  thrice  from  his  scat  in  an 
agony  of  fear  or  rage. 

On  the  following  day  the  attack  was  renewed,  but  with  no  bet- 
ter success ;  and  Xerxes  was  beginning  to  despair  of  forcing  his 
way  through  the  ])ass,  when  a  IMalian,  of  the  name  of  Ki)hialtes, 
betrayed  to  the  Persian  king  tlmt  there  was  an  unfrequented  ]iath 
across  Blount  CFAa,  ascending  on  the  northern  side  of  tlie  mountain, 
and  descending  on  the  southern  side  near  the  termination  of  the 
pass.  Overjoyed  at  this  discovery,  a  strong  detachment  of  Per- 
sians was  ordered  to  follow  the  traitor.  Meantime  Leonidas  and 
his  troo])S  had  received  amjjle  notice  of  the  imi>ending  danger. 
During  the  niglit  deserters  from  the  enemy  had  brought  him  the 
news  ;  and  their  intelligence  was  confirmed  by  his  own  scouts  on 
the  hills.  His  resolution  was  at  once  taken.  As  a  Spartan,  he 
was  bound  to  conquer  or  to  die  in  the  ])Ost  assigned  to  him  ;  and 
he  was  the  more  ready  to  sacrifice  his  life,  since  jvn  oracle  luid  de- 
clared that  cither  Spnrta  itself  or  a  Spartan  king  must  jjcrish  by 
the  Persian  arms.     His  three  hundred  comrades  were  fully  cqu»' 


B.C.  480.  BATTLE  OF  ARTEMISIUM.  61 

to  the  same  heroism  wliich  actuated  their  king;  and  the  seA'en 
liundred  Thespians  resolved  to  share  the  fate  of  this  gallant  band. 
He  allowed  the  rest  of  the  allies  to  retire,  Avith  the  exception  of 
four  hundred  Bceotians,  Avhom  he  retained  as  hostages.  Xerxes 
delayed  his  attack  till  the  middle  of  the  day,  when  it  was  expected 
that  the  detachment  sent  across  the  mountain  would  arrive  at  the 
rear  of  the  pass.  But  Leonidas  and  his  comrades,  only  anxious 
to  sell  their  lives  as  dearly  as  possible,  did  not  wait  to  receive  the 
attack  of  the  Persians,  but  advanced  into  the  open  space  in  front 
of  the  pass,  and  charged  the  enemy  with  desperate  valour.  Kum- 
bers  of  the  Persians  were  slain  ;  many  Avere  driA'en  into  the  neigh- 
bouring sea ;  and  others  again  Av^ere  trampled  to  death  by  the  vast 
hosts  behind  them.  As  long  as  the  Greeks  could  maintain  their 
ranks  they  repelled  every  attack ;  but  Avhen  their  spears  Avero 
broken,  and  they  had  only  their  SAVords  left,  the  enemy  began  to 
press  in  betAveen  them.  Leonidas  AA'as  one  of  tlie  first  that  fell, 
and  around  his  body  the  battle  raged  fiercer  than  CA'er.  The  Per- 
sians made  the  greatest  efforts  to  obtain  possession  of  it;  but  four 
times  they  Avere  driven  back  by  the  Greeks  Avith  great  slaughter. 
At  length,  thinned  in  numbers,  and  exhausted  by  fatigue  and 
Avounds,  this  noble  band  retired  AA-ithin  the  pass,  and  seated  them- 
selves on  a  hillock.  MeauAvhile  the  Persian  detachment,  AA'hich 
had  been  sent  across  the  mountains,  began  to  enter  the  pass  from 
tlie  south.  The  Spartan  heroes  Avere  noAv  surrounded  on  every 
side,  overwhelmed  Avith  a  shower  of  missiles,  and  killed  to  a  man. 
On  the  hillock,  Avhere  the  Greeks  made  their  last  stand,  a  mar- 
ble lion  Avas  set  up  in  honour  of  Leonidas.  Another  monument, 
erected  near  the  spot,  contained  the  memorable  inscription : 

"  Go,  tell  the  Spartans,  thou  that  passest  by, 
That  here  obedient  to  their  laws  v/e  lie." 

While  Leonidas  had  been  fighting  at  Thermopylsie,  the  Greek 
fleet  had  also  been  engaged  Avitli  the  Persians  at  Artemisium. 
The  Persian  fleet  set  sail  from  the  Gulf  of  Therma,  and  arrived 
in  one  day  at  almost  the  soutlicrn  corner  of  Magnesia.  In  this 
position  they  Avere  overtaken  In'  a  sudden  hurricane,  Avhich  blew 
upon  the  shore  with  irresistible  fury.  For  three  days  and  tliree 
nights  the  tempest  raged  Avithout  intermission  ;  and  Avhen  calm  at 
length  returned,  the  shore  Avas  seen  strcAved  for  many  miles  Avith 
Avrecks  and  corpses.  At  least  four  hundred  ships  of  Avar  Avere  de- 
stroyed, together  Avith  a  countless  number  of  transports,  stores,  and 
treasures.  The  Greek  fleet  had  been  seized  Avith  a  panic  terror 
at  the  approach  of  the  Persians,  and  retreated  to  Chalcis,  in  the 
narroAvest  part  of  the  Euboean  Straits ;  but  upon  liearing  of  the 
disaster  of  the  Persian  fleet,  they  took  courage,  ond  sailed  back 


C2  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VHL 

with  the  utmost  speed  to  their  former  station  at  Artemisium. 
Being  now  encouraj^cd  to  attack  the  enemy,  they  gained  some 
success.  On  the  following  night  another  terrific  storm  burst  upon 
the  Persians.  All  night  long  it  blew  upon  the  Thessalian  coast 
at  Ajjlictre,  where  the  Persian  sliips  were  stationed,  thus  causing 
little  inconvenience  to  the  Greeks  on  tlie  opposite  shore.  Not- 
withstanding these  losses,  the  Persian  fleet  still  had  a  vast  superi- 
ority of  numbers,  and  determined  to  offer  battle  to  the  Greeks. 
Quitting  the  Thessalian  coast,  they  sailed  towards  Artemisium  in 
the  form  of  a  crescent.  The  Greeks  kept  near  the  shore,  to  pre- 
vent the  Persians  from  bringing  their  whole  fleet  into  action.  The 
battle  raged  furiously  the  whole  day,  and  each  side  fought  with 
determined  valour.  Both  parties  suflered  severely ;  and  though 
tlie  Persians  lost  a  greater  number  of  ships  and  men,  yet  so  many 
of  the  Greek  vessels  were  disabled  that  they  found  it  would  be 
impossible  to  renew  the  combat.  Under  these  circumstances,  the 
Greek  commanders  saw  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  retreat ;  and 
their  determination  was  hastened  by  the  news  which  they  now  re- 
ceived, that  Leonidas  and  his  companions  had  fallen,  and  that 
Xerxes  was  master  of  the  pass  of  Thermopyhx;.  Having  sailed 
through  the  Eubaan  Strait,  the  fleet  doubled  the  promontory  of 
Sunium,  and  did  not  stop  till  it  reached  the  island  of  Salamis. 

Meanwhile  the  Peloponnesians  had  abandoned  Attica  and  the 
adjoining  states  to  their  fate,  whilst  they  strained  every  nen-e  to 
secure  themselves  by  fortifying  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  The 
Athenians,  relying  ujion  the  march  of  the  Peloponnesian  army  into 
Baotia,  had  taken  no  measures  for  the  security  of  their  families 
and  property,  and  beheld  with  terror  and  dismay  the  barbarian 
host  in  full  march  towards  their  city.  In  six  days  it  was  calcu- 
lated Xerxes  would  be  at  Athens — a  short  space  to  remove  the 
population  of  a  whole  city  ;  but  fear  and  necessity  work  wonders. 
Before  the  six  days  had  elapsed,  all  who  were  willing  to  abandon 
their  homes  had  been  safely  transported,  some  to  -^gina,  and  oth- 
ers to  Trcc/.cn  in  Peloponnesus  ;  but  many  could  not  be  induced 
to  proceed  farther  tlian  Salamis.  It  was  necessary  fur  Themisto- 
cles  to  use  all  his  art  and  all  his  eloquence  on  this  occasion.  Tiin 
oracle  at  Delphi  had  tohl  the  Athenians  that  "  the  divine  Salamis 
would  make  women  childless"' — yet,  "  when  all  was  lost,  a  wooden 
wall  sliould  still  shelter  the  Athenians."  Thomistoclcs  told  his 
countrymen  that  these  words  clearly  indicated  a  lleet  and  a  naval 
victory  as  the  only  means  of  safety.  Some,  however,  gave  to  the 
words  another  meaning ;  and  a  few,  especially  among  the  aged  and 
the  i>oor,  resolved  to  shut  tlu'niselves  up  in  the  Acropolis,  and  to 
fortify  ifs  accessible  or  wcstt-ni  front  with  barricades  of  tinilwr. 


B.C.  480.  BATTLE  OF  SAL  AMIS.  63 

On  his  march  towards  Athens,  Xerxes  sent  a  detachment  of  his 
army  to  take  and  plunder  Delphi.  But  this  attem})t  proved  un- 
successful. The  god  of  the  most  i-enowned  oracle  of  the  Grecian 
world  vindicated  at  once  the  majesty  of  his  sanctuary  and  the 
truth  of  his  predictions.  As  the  Persians  climbed  the  rugged 
path  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Parnassus,  leading  np  to  the  shrine, 
thunder  was  heard  to  roll,  and  two  crags,  suddenly  detaching  them- 
selves from  the  mountain,  rolled  down  upon  the  Persians,  and 
spread  dismay  and  destruction  in  their  ranks.  Seized  with  a  sud- 
den panic,  they  turned  and  Hed,  pursued,  as  they  said,  by  two  war- 
riors of  superhuman  size  and  prowess,  who  had  assisted  the  Del- 
phians  in  defending  their  temple. 

On  arriving  before  Athens,  Xerxes  found  the  Acropolis  occupied 
by  a  handful  of  desperate  citizens,  who  made  a  brave  resistance  ; 
but  they  were  overpowered  and  put  to  the  sword.  The  temples 
and  houses  on  the  Acropolis  were  pillaged  a,nd  burnt ;  and  Xerxes 
thus  became  undisputed  master  of  Athens. 

About  the  same  time  the  Persian  fleet  arrived  in  the  Bay  of 
Phalerum.  Its  strength  is  not  accurately  known,  but  it  must  have 
exceeded  1000  vessels.  The  combined  Grecian  fleet  at  Salamis 
consisted  of  336  ships,  of  which  200  were  Athenian. 

At  this  critical  juncture  dissension  reigned  in  the  Grecian  fleet. 
In  the  council  of  war  Avhich  had  been  summoned  by  Eurybiades, 
the  Spartan  commander,  Themistocles  urged  the  assembled  chief? 
to  remain  at  Salamis,  and  give  battle  to  the  Persians  in  the  nar- 
row straits,  where  the  superior  numbers  of  the  Peisians  would  be 
of  less  consequence.  The  Peioponnesian  commanders,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  anxious  that  the  fleet  should  be  removed  to  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  thus  be  put  in  communication  with  their 
land-forces.  The  council  came  to  a  vote  in  favour  of  retreat;  but 
Themistocles  prevailed  upon  Eurybiades  to  convene  another  as- 
sembly upon  the  following  day.  When  the  council  met,  the  Peio- 
ponnesian commanders  loudly  expressed  their  dissatisfaction  at 
seeing  a  debate  re-opened  which  they  had  deemed  concluded. 
Adimantus,  the  Corinthian  admiral,  broke  out  into  open  rebukes 
and  menaces.  "  Themistocles,"  he  exclaimed,  "those  who  rise 
at  the  public  games  before  the  signal  are  whipped."  "True,"  re- 
plied Themistocles;  "but  they  who  lag  behind  it  never  win  a 
crown."  Another  incident  in  this  discussion  has  been  immortal' 
ized  by  Plutarch.  Eurybiades,  incensed  I  y  the  language  of  The- 
mistocles, lifted  up  his  stick  to  strike  him,  whereupon  the  Atheninu 
exclaimed,  "Strike,  but  hear  me !''  Themistocles  repeated  his  ar- 
guments  and  entreaties ;  and  at  length  threatened  that  he  and  the 
Athenians  would  sail  away  to  Italy  and  there  found  a  new  city,  if 


64  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VIII. 

the  Peloponncsians  still  determined  to  retreat.  Eurybiades  now 
P&ve  way  and  issued  orders  for  the  fleet  to  remain  and  light  at 
Salamis ;  but  the  Peloponnesians  obeyed  the  order  with  reluct- 
ance. A  third  council  was  summoned  ;  and  Thcmistocles,  per- 
ceiving that  the  decision  of  the  assembly  would  be  against  him, 
determined  to  effect  his  object  by  stratagem.  He  secretly  de- 
spatched a  trusty  slave  with  a  message  to  Xerxes,  representing  the 
dissensions  which  prevailed  in  the  Grecian  fleet,  and  how  easy  a 
matter  it  would  be  to  surround  and  vanquish  an  armament  both 
small  and  disunited.  Xerxes  readily  adop'ted  the  suggestion,  and 
ordered  his  captains  to  close  up  the  Straits  of  Salamis  at  both 
ends  during  the  night.  On  the  council  assembling  in  the  morn- 
ing, Aristidcs  arrived  with  the  news  that  the  Grecian  fleet  wa« 
completely  surrounded  by  that  of  the  Persians,  and  that  retreat 
was  no  longer  ])ossible.  As  tlie  veil  of  night  rolled  gradually 
away,  the  Persian  fleet  was  discovered  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach  along  the  coast  of  Attica.  The  Grecian  fleet,  being 
concentrated  in  the  harbour  of  Salamis,  was  thus  surrounded  by 
the  Persians.  Xerxes  had  caused  a  lofty  throne  to  be  erected 
upon  one  of  the  projecting  declivities  of  Mount  JEgaleos,  oj>posito 
the  harbour  of  Salamis,  whence  he  could  survey  the  combat,  and 
stimulate  by  his  presence  the  courage  of  his  men. 

As  a  battle  vvas  now  inevitable,  the  Grecian  commanders  lost 
no  time  in  making  preparations  for  the  encounter.  The  Greek 
seamen  eml)arkcd  with  alacrity,  encouraging  one  another  to  deliv- 
er their  country,  their  wives,  and  children,  and  the  temples  of  their 
gods,  from  the  grasp  of  the  barbarians.  History  has  j)reservcd  to 
us  but  few  details  of  the  engagement.  The  I'ersian  fleet,  with  tlic 
exception  of  some  of  the  Ionic  contingents,  fought  with  courage. 
But  the  very  numbers  on  wliich  they  so  confidently  relied  proved 
one  of  the  chief  causes  of  their  defeat.  Too  crowded  cither  to  ad- 
vance or  to  retreat,  tlieir  oars  broken  or  impeded  by  collision  with 
one  another,  their  fleet  lay  like  an  inert  lifeless  mass  u]>uu  the  wa- 
ter, and  fell  an  easy  ])rey  to  the  Greeks.  A  single  incident  will 
illustrate  tlie  terror  and  confusion  which  reigned  among  the  Per- 
•ians.  Artemisia,  queen  of  Ilalicarnassus  in  Caria,  distinguished 
herself  in  it  by  deeds  of  daring  bravery.  At  length  she  turned 
and  fled,  pursued  by  an  Atheniiin  galley.  Fidl  in  her  course  lay 
Uic  vessel  ofaCariau  jirincc.  Instead  of  avoiding,  siie  struck  and 
Hunk  it,  sending  her  countrynuin  and  all  his  crew  to  the  bottom. 
Tlie  captain  of  the  Athenian  galley,  believing  from  this  net  that 
dhe  was  a  deserter  from  the  Persian  cause,  sullered  her  to  escape. 
Xerxes,  wlio  froTu  his  lofty  throne  l)cheld  the  feat  of  tlie  Ilalicar- 
fia«)siiiu  queen,  but  who  imagined  that  the  sunken  chip  belonged 


B.O.  480 


KETREAT  OF  XERXES. 


65 


to  the  G'-eeks,  was  filled  with  admiration  at  her  courage,  and  ex- 
claimed, "  ]My  men  are  become  women,  my  women  men  !" 


Plan  of  the  Battle  of  Salami?. 

Two  hundred  of  the  Persian  ships  were  destroyed  and  sunk, 
when  night  put  an  end  to  the  engagement.  But,  notwithstanding 
this  loss,  the  fleet  was  still  formidable  by  its  numbers.  The  Greeks 
themselves  did  not  regard  the  victory  as  decisive,  and  prepared  to 
renew  the  combat.  But  the  pusillanimity  of  Xerxes  relieved  them 
from  all  further  anxiety.  He  became  alarmed  for  his  own  per- 
sonal safetv,  and  his  whole  care  was  now  centred  on  securing  his 
retreat  by  land.  The  best  troops  were  disembarked  from  the 
ships,  and  marched  towards  the  Hellespont,  in  order  to  secure  the 
bridge,  whilst  the  fleet  itself  was  ordered  to  make  for  Asia.  These 
dispositions  of  Xerxes  were  prompted  by  Mardonius.  He  repre= 
seated  to  his  master  that  the  defeat,  after  all,  was  but  slight;  that, 
having  attained  one  of  the  great  objects  of  the  expedition  by  the 
capture  of  Athens,  he  might  now  retire  with  honour,  and  even 
with  glory ;  and  that  for  the  rest  he  (Mardonius)  would  undertake 
to  complete  the  conquest  of  Greece  with  300,000  men.  While 
the  Persian  fleet  sailed  towards  Asia,  Xerxes  set  out  on  his  home- 
wai'd  march.  In  Thessaly  Mardonius  selected  the  300,000  men 
with  \vhoni  he  ]irnposed  to  conclude  the  war ;  but  a-^  autumn  was 


QG  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VIH 

now  approacliinp;,  he  resolved  to  postpone  all  further  operations 
till  the  s])ring. 

After  forty-five  days'  march  from  Attica,  Xerxes  again  reached 
the  shores  of  the  Hellespont,  with  a  force  greatly  diminished  by 
famine  and  pestilence.  On  the  Hellespont  he  found  his  fleet,  but 
the  bridge  had  been  Avashed  away  by  storms.  Landed  on  the 
shores  of  Asia,  the  Persian  army  at  length  obtained  abundance 
of  provisions,  and  contracted  new  maladies  by  the  sudden  change 
from  privation  to  excess.  Thus  terminated  this  mighty  but  un- 
successful expedition. 

Greece  owed  its  salvation  to  one  man — Themistocles.  This  was 
virtually  admitted  by  the  leaders  of  the  other  Grecian  states  when 
they  assembled  to  assign  the  prizes  of  Avisdom  and  conduct.  Ui)on 
the  altar  of  Poseidon,  at  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  each  chief  de- 
posited a  ticket  inscribed  with  two  names,  of  those  whom  he  con- 
sidered entitled  to  the  first  and  second  ])rizes.  Put  in  this  adjudi- 
cation vanity  and  self-love  defeated  their  own  objects.  Each  com- 
mander had  put  down  his  own  name  for  the  first  prize ;  for  the 
second,  a  great  majority  preponderated  in  favour  of  Themistocles. 
From  the  Spartans,  also,  Themistocles  received  the  honours  due  to 
his  merit.  A  crown  of  olive  was  conferred  ui)on  him,  together  with 
one  of  the  most  splendid  chariots  which  the  city  could  produce. 

On  the  very  same  day  on  which  the  Persians  were  defeated  at 
Salamis  the  Sicilian  Greeks  also  obtained  a  victory  over  the  Car- 
thaginians. There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  invasion  of  Sicily 
by  the  Carthaginians  was  concerted  with  Xerxes,  and  that  the 
simultaneous  attack  on  two  distinct  Grecian  peo]>les,  by  two  im- 
inense  armaments,  was  not  merely  the  result  of  chance.  Gelon, 
the  powerful  ruler  of  Syracuse,  defeated  Ilamilcar,  the  Carthagin- 
ian general,  with  the  loss,  it  is  said,  of  150,000  men. 

In  the  spring  of  ij.c.  47'J  Mardonius  prei)ared  to  open  the  cam- 
paign. He  was  not  without  Iiojjcs  of  inducing  the  Athenians  to 
join  the  Persian  alliance,  and  he  desi)atched  Alexander,  king  of 
Maccdon,  to  conciliate  the  Athenians,  now  ])arlially  re-established 
in  their  dilapidated  city.  His  oilers  on  the  ])art  of  the  I'crsians 
were  of  the  most  seductive  kind  ;  but  the  Athenians  dismissed 
him  with  a  positive  refusal,  whilst  to  the  Lacedicmonians  they  pro- 
tested that  no  temjjtations,  however  great,  should  ever  induce  them 
to  desert  the  common  cause  of  Greece  and  freedom.  In  return 
for  this  disinterested  conduct,  all  they  asked  was  tliat  a  Pelopon- 
nesian  army  slioidil  be  sent  into  lUcotia  for  the  defence  of  tho 
Attic  frontier:  a  request  which  the  Sjiartan  envoys  promised  to 
fullil.  No  sooner,  however,  had  they  returned  to  their  own  coun- 
try than  this  promise  was  c(jmpletely  forgotten. 


B.C.  479.  BATTLE  OF  PLATiEA.  67 

When  Mardonius  was  informed  that  the  Athenians  had  rejected 
his  proposal,  he  immediately  marched  against  Athens,  accompa- 
nied by  all  his  Grecian  allies ;  and  in  May  or  June,  b.c.  479,  about 
ten  m.onths  after  the  retreat  of  Xerxes,  the  Persians  again  occupied 
that  city.  With  feelings  of  bitter  indignation  against  their  faith- 
less allies,  the  Athenians  saw  themselves  once  more  compelled  to 
remove  to  Salamis.  Mardonius  took  advantage  of  his  situation 
to  endeavour  once  more  to  win  them  to  his  alliance.  Through  a 
Hellespontine  Greek,  the  same  favourable  conditions  were  again 
offered  to  them,  but  were  again  refused.  One  voice  alone,  that  of 
the  senator  Lycidas,  broke  the  unanimity  of  the  assembly.  But 
his  opposition  cost  him  his  life.  He  and  his  family  were  stoned 
to  death  by  the  excited  populace.  In  this  desperate  condition,  the 
Athenians  sent  ambassadors  to  the  Spartans  to  remonstrate  against 
their  breach  of  faith,  and  to  intimate  that  necessity  might  at  length 
compel  them  to  listen  to  the  proposals  of  the  enemy.  The  Spar- 
tans became  alarmed.  That  very  night  5000  citizens,  each  at- 
tended by  seven  Helots,  were  despatched  to  the  frontiers  ;  and  these 
were  shortly  followed  by  5000  Lacedaemonian  Perioeci,  each  attend- 
ed by  one  light-armed  Helot.  Never  before  had  the  Spartans  sent 
so  large  a  force  into  the  field.  Their  example  was  followed  by 
other  Peloponnesian  cities ;  and  the  Athenian  envoys  returned  to 
Salamis  with  the  joyful  news  that  a  large  army  was  preparing  to 
march  against  the  enemy  under  the  command  of  Pausanias,  who 
acted  as  regent  for  the  infant  son  of  Leonidas. 

Mardonius,  on  learning  the  approach  of  the  Lacedaemonians, 
abandoned  Attica  and  crossed  into  Bceotia.  He  finally  took  up  a 
position  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Asopus,  and  not  far  from  the  town 
of  Plataja.  Here  he  caused  a  camp  to  be  constructed  of  ten  fur- 
longs square,  and  fortified  with  barricades  and  towers.  Mean- 
while the  Grecian  army  continued  to  receive  re-enforcements  from 
the  different  states,  and  by  the  time  it  reached  Boeotia  it  fonned  a 
grand  total  of  about  110,000  men.  After  several  days'  manoeuvring 
a  general  battle  took  place  near  Plattca.  The  light-ai'med  undis- 
ciplined Persians,  whose  bodies  were  unprotected  by  armour,  main- 
tained a  A'ery  unequal  combat  against  the  serried  ranks,  the  long 
spears,  and  the  mailed  bodies  of  the  Spartan  phalanx.  Mardonius, 
at  the  head  of  his  body-gnard  of  1000  picked  men,  and  conspicu- 
ous by  his  white  charger,  was  among  the  foremost  in  the  fight  till 
struck  down  by  the  hand  of  a  Spartan.  The  fall  of  their  general 
was  the  signal  for  flight  to  the  Persians,  already  wearied  and  dis- 
heartened by  the  fruitless  contest ;  nor  did  they  once  stop  till 
they  had  again  crossed  the  Asopus  and  reached  their  fortified 
camp.     The  glory  of  haWng  defeated  the  Persians  at  Plata;a  rests 


68  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  VIII. 

with  the  Lacedaemonians,  since  the  Atlienians  were  cnp;aped  in  an- 
other part  of  the  field  with  the  Thebans.  After  rcjjulsing  the  The- 
bans,  the  Athenians  joined  the  Lacedaemonians,  who  had  jjursued 
the  Persians  as  far  as  their  fortified  camp.  L'pon  the  arrival  of 
the  Athenians  the  barricades  were  stormed  and  carried,  after  a  gal- 
lant resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Persians.  The  camp  became  a 
scene  of  the  most  horrible  carnage.  The  Persian  loss  was  immense, 
while  that  of  the  Greeks  seems  not  to  have  exceeded  1300  or  1400 
men. 

It  remained  to  bury  the  dead  and  divide  the  booty ;  and  so  great 
was  the  task,  that  ten  days  were  consumed  in  it.  The  booty  was 
ample  and  magnificent.  Gold  and  silver  coined,  as  well  as  in  jdate 
and  trinkets,  rich  vests  and  carpets,  ornamented  arms,  horses,  cam- 
els— in  a  word,  all  the  magnificence  of  Eastern  luxury.  The  fail- 
ure of  the  Persian  expedition  Mas  completed  by  the  destruction  of 
their  navul  armament.  Leotyohides,  the  kSpartan  admiral,  having 
sailed  across  the  JEgean,  found  the  Persian  Hect  at  !Mycale,  a  prom- 
ontory of  Asia  Minor  near  Miletus.  Their  former  reverses  seem 
completely  to  have  discouraged  the  Persians  from  hazarding  an- 
other naval  engagement.  The  ships  were  hauled  ashore  and  sur- 
rounded witli  a  rampart,  whilst  an  army  of  G0,000  Persians  lined 
the  coast  for  tlieir  defence.  The  Greeks  landed  on  the  veiy  day 
on  which  the  battle  of  Platsea  was  fought.  A  supernatural  pre- 
sentiment of  that  decisive  victory,  conveyed  by  a  herald's  staff, 
whic'i  floated  over  thc^gcan  from  the  shores  of  Greece,  is  said  to 
have  pervaded  the  Grecian  ranks  at  Mycale  as  they  marched  to  tlic 
attack.  The  Persians  did  not  long  resist :  they  turned  their  backs 
and  fled  to  their  fortifications,  pursued  by  the  Greeks,  who  entered 
them  almost  simultaneously.  A  large  number  of  the  Persians  per- 
ished ;  and  the  victory  was  rendered  still  more  decisive  by  the 
burning  of  the  fleet. 

The  Grecian  fleet  now  sailed  towards  the  Hellespont  with  the 
view  of  destroying  the  bridge  ;  but,  hearing  that  it  no  longer  ex- 
isted, Lcotychidcs  de])arted  homewards  with  the  l*cloponnesian 
vessels.  Xantliij)pus,  however,  the  Athenian  commander,  seized 
the  oj'portunity  to  recover  from  the  Persians  the  Thracian  Cher- 
sonese, which  had  long  been  an  Athenian  possession  ;  and  pro- 
ceeded to  blockade  Sestos,  the  key  of  the  strait.  This  city  sur- 
rendered in  the  autumn,  after  a  i)rotractcd  siege,  whereu])on  the 
Athenians  returned  lionie,  carrying  with  tlicui  the  cables  of  the 
bridge  across  the  Hellespont,  which  were  afterwards  preserved  in 
the  Acro])olis  as  a  trojdiy. 


yu 


1^0 


0 


The  Partlienon  iu  its  jDresent  state. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

FROM  THE  EXD  OF  THE  PERSIAN  WARS  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF 
THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR,  B.C.  479-431. 

The  Atlienians,  on  their  return  to  Attica,  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Persians,  found  their  city  ruined  and  their  country  desolate. 
The)^  began  to  rebuild  their  city  on  a  larger  scale  than  before, 
and  to  fortify  it  with  a  wall.  Those  allies  to  whom  the  increas- 
ing maritime  power  of  Athens  was  an  object  of  suspicion,  and 
especially  the  iEginetans,  to  v/hom  it  was  more  particularly  for- 
midable, beheld  her  rising  fortifications  Avith  dismay.  They  en- 
deavoured to  inspire  the  Lacedicmonians  Avith  their  fears,  and 
urged  them  to  arrest  the  work.  But,  though  Sparta  shared  the 
jealousy  of  the  allies,  she  could  not,  v.'ith  any  decency,  interfere  bj 
force  to  prevent  a  friendly  city  from  exercising  a  right  inherent  in 
all  independent  states.  She  assumed,  therefore,  the  hypocritical 
garb  of  an  adviser  and  counsellor.  Concealing  her  jealousy  under 
the  pretence  of  zeal  for  the  comm.on  interests  of  Greece,  she  rep- 
resented to  the  Athenians  that,  in  the  event  of  another  Persian 
invasion,  fortified  towns  Avould  serve  the  enemy  for  camps  and 
strongholds,  as  Thebes  had  done  in  the  last  war;  and  proposed 
that  the  Athenians  should  not  only  desist  from  completing  their 


70  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Ciup.  IX. 

own  fortifications,  but  help  to  demolish  those  which  already  ex. 
isted  in  other  towns. 

Tlic  object  of  the  proposal  was  too  transparent  to  deceive  so 
acute  a  statesman  as  Themistocles.  Athens  was  not  yet,  however, 
in  a  condition  to  incur  the  danger  of  openly  rejecting  it ;  and  he 
therefore  advised  the  Athenians  to  dismiss  the  S])artan  envoys  with 
tlie  assurance  that  they  would  send  ambassadors  to  Sparta  to  ex- 
plain their  views.  He  then  caused  liimself  to  be  appointed  one 
of  these  ambassadors ;  and  setting  off  straightway  for  Sparta,  di- 
rected his  colleagues  to  linger  behind  as  long  as  possible.  At 
Sparta,  the  absence  of  his  colleagues,  at  which  he  affected  to  be 
surprised,  afforded  him  an  excuse  for  not  demanding  an  audience 
of  the  cphors.  During  the  interval  thus  gained,  the  whole  popu- 
lation of  Athens,  of  both  sexes  and  every  age,  worked  day  and 
nii;ht  at  tlic  walls,  whicli,  when  the  other  ambassadors  at  length 
arrived  at  Sparta,  had  attained  a  height  sufficient  to  afford  a  tol- 
erable dcfencG.  Meanwhile  the  suspicions  of  the  Spartans  had 
been  more  than  once  aroused  by  messages  from  the  ^ginctans  re- 
specting the  progress  of  the  walls.  Themistocles,  however,  posi- 
tively denied  their  statements;  and  urged  the  Spartans  to  send 
messengers  of  their  own  to  Athens  in  order  to  learn  the  true  state 
of  affairs,  at  the  same  time  instructing  the  Athenians  to  detain 
them  as  hostages  for  the  safety  of  himself  and  colleagues.  When 
there  was  no  longer  any  motive  for  concealment,  Themistocles 
openly  avowed  tlie  progress  of  tlic  works,  and  his  intention  of  se- 
curing the  independence  of  Alliens,  and  enabling  her  to  act  for 
herself  The  walls  being  now  too  far  advanced  to  be  easily  taken, 
the  Spartans  found  themselves  compelled  to  acquiesce,  and  the 
works  were  completed  without  furtlicr  hindrance. 

Having  thus  secured  the  city  from  all  danger  of  an  immediate 
attack,  Themistocles  pursued  his  favourite  project  of  rendering 
Athens  the  greatest  maritime  and  commercial  j)ower  of  Greece. 
He  erected  a  town  round  the  harbour  of  Piraius,  distant  between 
four  and  five  miles  from  Athens,  and  enclosed  it  with  a  wall  as 
large  in  extent  as  the  city  itself,  but  of  vastly  greater  lieight  and 
thickness.  Meanwhile  an  event  occurred  which  secured  more 
iirmly  than  ever  the  maritime  supremacy  of  Athens,  by  transferring 
to  her  the  command  of  the  allied  fleet. 

In  the  year  after  the  battle  of  I'lat.Ta  a  fleet  had  been  fitted  out 
and  ])laccd  under  the  coiuniand  of  the  Si'artaa  regent,  I'ausanias, 
in  order  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  Persians.  After  deliver- 
ing most  of  the  Grecian  towns  in  Cy})rus  from  the  I'ersians,  this 
armament  sailed  uj)  the  Bosporus  and  laid  siege  to  By/Jintium, 
which  was  garrisoned  by  a  large  Persian  force.     The  town  sur- 


B.C.  478.  CONFEDERACY  OF  DELOS.  71 

rendered  after  a  protracted  siege  :  but  it  was  during  this  expedition 
that  the  conduct  of  the  Spartan  commander  struck  a  fatal  blow  at 
the  interests  of  his  country. 

The  immense  booty,  as  well  as  the  renown,  which  Pausanias  had 
acquired  at  Plataa,  had  filled  him  with  pride  and  ambition.  Aft- 
er the  capture  of  Byzantium  he  despatched  a  letter  to  Xerxes,  of- 
fering to  marry  the  king's  daughter,  and  to  bring  Sparta  and  the 
rest  of  Greece  under  his  dominion.  Xerxes  was  highly  delighted 
with  this  letter,  and  sent  a  reply  in  which  he  urged  Pausanias  to 
pursue  his  project  night  and  day,  and  promised  to  supply  him  with 
all  the  money  and  troops  that  might  be  needful  for  its  execution. 
But  the  childish  vanity  of  Pausanias  betrayed  his  plot  before  it 
was  ripe  for  execution.  Elated  by  the  confidence  of  Xerxes,  and 
by  the  money  Avith  which  he  was  lavishly  supplied,  he  acted  as  if 
he  had  already  married  the  Great  King's  daughter.  He  assumed 
the  Persian  dress ;  he  made  a  progress  through  Thrace,  attended 
by  Persian  and  Egyptian  guards ;  and  copied,  in  the  luxury  of  his 
table  and  the  dissoluteness  of  his  manners,  the  example  of  his 
adopted  countr}'.  Above  all,  he  offended  the  allies  by  his  haughty 
reserve  and  imperiousness.  His  designs  were  now  too  manifest  to 
escape  attention.  His  proceedings  reached  the  cars  of  the  Spar- 
tans, who  sent  out  Dorcis  to  supersede  him.  Disgusted  by  the  in- 
solence of  Pausanias,  the  lonians  serving  in  the  combined  Grecian 
fleet  addressed  themselves  to  Aristides,  whose  manners  formed  a 
striking  contrast  to  those  of  the  Spartan  leader,  and  begged  him  to 
assume  the  command.  This  request  was  made  precisely  at  the 
time  when  Pausanias  was  recalled ;  and  accordingly,  when  Dorcis 
arrived,  he  found  Aristides  in  command  of  the  combined  fleet 
(B.C.  478). 

This  event  was  not  a  mere  empty  question  about  a  point  of 
honour.  It  was  a  real  revolution,  terminated  by  a  solemn  league, 
of  which  Athens  was  to  be  the  head.  Aristides  took  the  lead  in 
the  matter,  for  which  his  proverbial  justice  and  probity  eminently 
qualified  him.  The  league  obtained  the  name  of  "the  Confed- 
eracy of  Delos,"  from  its  being  arranged  that  deputies  of  the  allies 
belonging  to  it  should  meet  periodically  for  deliberation  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo  and  Artemis  (Diana)  in  that  island.  Each  state 
was  assessed  in  a  certain  contribution,  either  of  money  or  ships,  as 
proposed  by  the  Athenians  and  ratified  by  the  synod.  The  assess- 
ment was  intrusted  to  Aristides,  whose  impartiality  was  universal- 
ly applauded.  Of  the  details,  however,  we  only  know  tliat  the 
first  assessment  amounted  to  4G0  talents  (about  £10G,0C0  sterling), 
that  certain  officers  called  Hellenotamia;  were  appointed  by  the 
Athenians  to  collect  and  administer  the  contributions,  and  that 
Delos  was  the  treasury. 


72  HISTORY  OF  GEEECE.  Chap.  IX. 

Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Confederacy  of  Dclos.  Soon  after 
its  formation  Aristides  Avas  succeeded  in  tlie  command  of  the  com- 
bined fleet  by  Cimon,  the  son  of  jNliltiades. 

Fausanias,  on  his  return  to  Sparta,  seems  to  have  been  acquit- 
ted of  any  definite  charges  ;  but  he  continued  his  corresjjondence 
with  Persia,  and  an  accident  at  length  afforded  convincing  proofs 
of  his  guilt.  A  favourite  slave,  to  whom  he  had  intrusted  a  letter 
to  the  Persian  satrap  at  Sardis,  observed  with  dismay  that  none 
of  the  messengers  employed  in  tliis  service  had  ever  returned. 
Moved  by  these  fears,  he  broke  tlie  seal  and  read  the  letter,  and 
finding  his  suspicions  of  the  fate  that  awaited  him  confirmed,  he 
carried  the  document  to  the  ephors.  But  in  ancient  states  the 
testimony  of  a  slave  was  always  regarded  with  suspicion.  The 
cjjhors  refused  to  believe  the  evidence  offered  to  tlicm  unless  con- 
firmed l)y  their  own  ears.  For  this  purpose  they  directed  him  to 
plant  himself  as  a  supiiliant  in  a  sacred  grove  near  Cape  Ta^narus, 
in  a  hut  behind  which  two  of  their  body  might  conceal  themselves. 
Pausanias,  as  they  had  expected,  anxious  at  tlie  step  taken  by  his 
slave,  hastened  to  the  spot  to  question  him  about  it.  The  con- 
versation which  ensued,  and  which  Avas  overheard  by  the  ejjhors, 
rendered  the  guilt  of  Pausanias  no  longer  doubtful.  They  now 
determined  to  arrest  him  on  his  return  to  Sparta.  They  met  him 
in  the  street  near  the  temple  of  Athena  Chalcicecus  (of  the  Brazen 
House),  when  Pausanias,  either  alarmed  by  his  guilty  conscience, 
or  put  on  his  guard  l)y  a  secret  signal  from  one  of  the  ephors, 
turned  and  fled  to  the  temple,  Avhcre  he  took  refuge  in  a  small 
chamber  belonging  to  the  building.  From  this  sanctuary  it  was 
unlawful  to  drag  him  ;  but  the  ephors  caused  the  doors  to  be  built 
np  and  the  roof  to  be  removed,  and  his  own  motlier  is  said  to  have 
placed  the  flrst  stone  at  the  doors.  When  at  the  point  of  deatli 
from  stan-ation,  he  was  carried  from  the  sanctuary  before  he  pol- 
luted it  Avith  his  corpse.  Such  Avas  the  end  of  the  A'ictor  of  Plataa. 
After  his  death  ])roofs  Averc  discoA'cred  among  his  papers  that  The- 
mistocles  Avas  im])licated  in  his  guilt.  But,  in  order  to  folloAv  the 
fortunes  of  the  Athenian  statesman,  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  glanee 
at  the  internal  history  of  Athens. 

Th.e  ancient  riA-alry  between  Tlicmistocles  and  Aristides  had 
f)3en  in  a  good  degree  extinguished  by  the  danger  Avhicli  threat- 
ened their  common  country  during  the  Persian  vars.  Aristides 
had  since  abandoned  his  former  ]irejudiccs,  and  Avas  Avilliiig  to 
conform  to  many  of  the  democratical  innoA'ations  of  his  rival. 
The  effect  of  this  was  to  produce,  soon  after  their  return  to  Atlica, 
a  still  further  modilication  of  the  constitution  of  Clisthcnos.  The 
Thctcs,  the  lowest  of  the  four  classes  of  Athenian  citizens,  Avcro 


B.C.  471.     BANISHMENT  OF  THEMISTOCLES.  73 

declared  eligible  for  the  magistracy,  from  -uhich  they  had  beeq 
excluded  by  the  laws  of  Solon.  Tims  not  only  the  archonship, 
but  consequently  the  Council  of  Areopagus,  was  thrown  open  to 
them  ;  and,  strange  to  say,  this  reform  was  proposed  by  Aristides 
himself. 

Nevertheless,  party  spirit  still  ran  high  at  Athens.  Cimon  and 
Alcmajon  were  violent  opponents  of  Themistoclcs,  and  of  their 
party  Aristides  was  still  the  head.  The  popularity  of  Aristides 
was  never  greater  than  at  the  present  time,  owing  not  only  to  the 
more  libor^^l  spirit  which  he  exhibited,  but  also  to  his  great  services 
in  establishing  the  Confederacy  of  Delos.  Themistoclcs  had  of- 
fended the  Athenians  by  his  ostentation  and  vanity.  He  was  con- 
tinually boasting  of  his  services  to  the  state ;  but,  worse  than  all 
this,  his  conduct  was  stained  with  jiositive  guilt.  Whilst,  at  the 
head  of  an  Athenian  squadron,  he  was  sailing  among  the  Greek 
islands  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  executing  justice,  there  is  lit- 
tle room  to  doubt  that  he  corrupted  its  very  source  by  accepting 
large  sums  of  money  from  the  cities  Avhich  he  visited.  Party  spirit 
at  length  reached  such  a  height  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  re- 
sort to  ostracism,  and  Themistoclcs  was  condemned  to  a  temporary 
banishment  (b.c.  471).  He  retired  to  Argos,  where  he  was  resid- 
ing when  the  Spartans  called  upon  the  Athenians  to  prosecute 
their  great  statesman  before  a  synod  of  the  allies  assembled  at 
Sparta,  on  the  ground  of  treasonable  correspondence  with  Persia. 
Accordingly,  joint  envoys  Avere  sent  from  Athens  and  Sparta  to  ar- 
rest him  (b.c.  4G6).  Themistocles  avoided  the  impending  danger 
by  flying  from  Argos  to  Coi'cyra.  The  Corcyrseans,  howcA^er,  not 
daring  to  shelter  him,  he  passed  OA'er  to  the  continent ;  where, 
being  still  pursued,  he  was  forced  to  seek  refuge  at  the  court  of  Ad- 
metus,  king  of  the  Molossians,  though  the  latter  Avas  his  personal 
enemy.  Fortunately,  Admetus  happened  to  be  from  home.  The 
forlorn  condition  of  Themistoclcs  excited  the  compassion  of  the 
Avife  of  the  Molossian  king,  Avho  placed  her  child  in  his  arms,  and 
bade  him  seat  himself  on  the  hearth  as  a  suppliant.  As  soon  as 
the  king  arriA-ed,  Themistocles  explained  his  peril,  and  adjured 
him  by  the  sacred  laAvs  of  hospitality  not  to  take  vengeance  upon  a 
fallen  foe.  Admetus  accepted  his  appeal,  and  raised  him  from  the 
hearth ;  he  refused  to  deliA-er  him  up  to  his  pursuers,  and  at  last 
only  dismissed  him  on  his  OAvn  expressed  desire  to  proceed  to  Per- 
sia. After  many  perils,  Themistocles  succeeded  in  reaching  in 
safety  the  coast  of  Asia.  Artaxerxes,  the  son  of  Xerxes,  was  noAV 
upon  the  throne  of  Persia,  and  to  him  Themistocles  hastened  to 
announce  himself.  The  king  AA-as  delighted  at  his  arriv-al,  and 
treated  him  Avith  the  greatest  distinction.     In  a  year's  time,  The- 


n  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  IX. 

mistocles,  having  acquired  a  sufficient  knowlcdfjc  of  the  Persian 
languaf^jc  to  be  able  to  converse  in  it,  entertained  Artaxerxes  with 
magnificent  schemes  for  the  subjugation  of  Greece.  Artaxerxes 
loaded  liim  with  presents,  gave  him  a  Persian  wife,  and  appointed 
Magnesia,  a  town  not  far  from  the  Ionian  coast,  as  his  place  of  res- 
idence. After  living  there  some  time  he  was  carried  off  by  dis- 
ease at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  without  having  realized,  or  apparent- 
ly attempted,  any  of  those  ])lans  witli  which  he  had  dazzled  the 
Persian  monarch.  Rumour  ascribed  his  death  to  ]toison,  which  he 
took  of  his  own  accord,  from  a  consciousness  of  his  inability  to  ])cr- 
form  his  promises ;  but  this  report,  wliich  was  cun-ent  in  the  time 
of  Thucydides,  is  rejected  by  that  historian. 

Aristides  died  about  four  years  after  the  banishment  of  Themis- 
toclcs.  The  common  accounts  of  his  poverty  arc  probably  exag- 
gerated, and  seem  to  have  been  founded  on  the  circumstances  of 
a  public  funeral,  and  of  handsome  donations  made  to  his  tliree 
children  by  the  state.  But,  whatever  his  pi'operty  may  have  been, 
it  is  at  least  certain  that  he  did  not  acquire  or  increase  it  by  un- 
lawful means ;  and  not  even  calumny  has  ventured  to  assail  his 
well-earned  title  of  t/ie  Just. 

On  the  death  of  Aristides,  Cimon  became  the  undisputed  leader 
of  the  conservative  party  at  Athens.  Cimon  was  generous,  affable, 
magnificent ;  and,  notwithstanding  his  political  views,  of  exceed- 
ingly popular  manners.  lie  had  inherited  the  military  genius  of 
his  father,  and  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  commander  of  his 
time.  He  employed  the  vast  wealth  acquired  in  his  expeditions  in 
adorning  Athens  and  gratifying  his  fellow-citizens.  It  has  been 
already  mentioned  that  he  succeeded  Aristides  in  the  command 
of  the  allied  fleet.  His  first  exploits  were  the  cnpture  of  Eion  on 
the  Strymon,  and  the  reduction  of  the  island  of  8cyros  (n.c.  47G). 
A  few  years  afterwards  we  find  the  first  symptoms  of  discontent 
among  the  members  of  the  Confederacy  of  Dclos.  Naxos,  one  of 
the  confederate  islands,  and  the  largest  of  the  Cyclades,  rcA'olted 
in  n.c.  4GG,  probably  from  a  feeling  of  the  growing  oi)p'rcssiveness 
of  the  Athenian  headship.  It  was  immediately  invested  by  the 
coniederate  fleet,  reduced,  and  made  tributary  to  Athens.  This 
was  another  step  towards  dominion  gained  by  the  Athenians,  whoso 
pretensions  were  assisted  by  tlie  im])ruden(e  of  the  allies.  !Many 
of  the  smaller  states  belonging  to  the  confederacy,  wearied  with 
perpetual  liostilities,  commuted  for  a  money  ]>ayment  tlie  shijjg 
wliich  they  were  bound  to  su])ply  ;  and  thus,  by  dei)riving  them- 
selves of  a  navy,  lost  the  only  means  by  which  they  could  assert 
tlicir  independence. 

The  same  year  was  marked  by  a  mcmoviable  action  against  tho 


B.C.  464.  THIRD  MESSENIAN  WAR.  75 

Persians.  Cimon,  at  the  head  of  200  Atlieuian  triremes,  and 
100  furnished  by  the  allies,  proceeded  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  Persians  had  assembled  a  large  fleet  and  army  at  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Eurymedon  in  PamjDhylia.  After  speedily  defeating 
the  fleet,  Cimon  landed  his  men  and  marclied  against  the  Persian 
army,  which  was  drawn  np  on  the  shore  to  protect  the  fleet.  The 
land-force  fought  with  bravery,  but  was  at  length  put  to  the  rout. 

The  island  of  Thasos  was  the  next  member  of  the  confederacy 
against  which  the  Athenians  directed  their  arms.  After  a  siego 
of  more  than  two  years  that  island  surrendered,  "svhen  its  fortifica- 
tions were  razed,  and  it  was  condemned  to  pay  tribute  (b.c.  4G3). 

The  expedition  to  Thasos  was  attended  with  a  circumstance 
which  first  gives  token  of  the  coming  hostilities  between  Sparta 
and  Athens.  At  an  early  period  of  the  blockade  the  Thasians 
secretly  applied  to  the  Laccdiemonians  to  make  a  diversion  in 
t!ieir  favour  by  invading  Attica;  and  though  the  Laceda;monians 
w>,i-e  still  ostensibly  allied  with  Athens,  they  were  base  enough  to 
comply  with  this  request.  Their  treachery,  however,  was  prevent- 
ed by  a  terrible  calamity  which  befcl  themselves.  In  the  year 
B.C.  4u4  their  capital  was  visited  by  an  eartliquake,  which  laid  it 
in  ruins  and  killed  20,000  of  the  citizens.  But  this  was  only  part 
of  the  calamity.  The  earthquake  was  immediately  followed  by  a 
revolt  of  the  Helots,  who  were  always  ready  to  avail  themselves 
of  the  weakness  of  their  tyrants.  Being  joined  by  the  JSIessenians, 
they  fortified  themselves  in  Mount  Ithome  in  Messenia.  Hence 
this  revolt  is  sometimes  called  the  Third  Hfessenian  War  (b.c. 
4G4).  After  two  or  three  years  spent  in  a  vain  attempt  to  dis- 
lodge them  from  this  position,  the  Lacedaimonians  found  them- 
selves obliged  to  call  in  the  assistance  of  their  allies,  and,  among 
the  rest,  of  the  Athenians.  It  was  with  great  difticulty  that  Cimon 
persuaded  the  Athenians  to  comply  with  this  reqiiest ;  but  he  was 
at  length  despatched  to  Laconia  with  a  force  of  4000  hoplites. 
The  aid  of  the  Athenians  had  been  requested  by  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians on  account  of  their  acknowledged  superiority  in  the  art  of 
attacking  fortified  places.  As,  however,  Cimon  did  not  succeed 
in  dislodging  the  Helots  from  Ithome,  the^iiacedaimonians,  proba- 
bly from  a  consciousness  of  their  own  treachery  in  the  affair  of 
Thasos,  suspected  that  the  Athenians  wsrc  playing  them  false^ 
and  abruptly  dismissed  them,  saying  that  they  had  no  longer  any 
occasion  for  their  services.  This  rude  dismissal  gave  great  oftence 
at  Athens,  and  annihilated  for  a  time  the  political  influence  of 
Cimon.  Tiie  democratical  party  h.ad  from  the  first  opposed  the 
expedition ;  and  it  afforded  them  a  great  trium])h  to  be  able  to 
point  to  Cimon   returning  not  only  unsuccessful,  but  insulted. 


76  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  IX 

Tliat  party  was  now  led  by  rericles.  A  sort  of  hcrcLlitary  feud 
existed  between  I'ericles  and  Cinion ;  for  it  was  Xanthijipus,  the 
father  of  Tcricles,  wlio  had  impeached  Mihiades,  the  father  of  Ci- 
mon.  The  character  of  Tericles  was  almost  the  reverse  of  Ci- 
mou's.  Although  the  leader  of  the  ])Opular  party,  his  manners 
were  reserved.  He  a]ipcared  but  little  in  society,  and  only  in  pub- 
lic upon  great  occasions.  His  mind  had  received  the  highest  ])ol- 
ish  whicli  that  period  was  capable  of  giving.  He  constantly  con 
versed  with  Anaxagoras,  Protagoras,  Zeno,  and  other  eminent  ]  lii- 
losophers.  To  oratoiy  in  particular  he  had  devoted  much  atten- 
tion, as  an  indispensable  instrument  for  swaying  the  public  assem- 
blies of  Athens. 

Tcricles  seized  the  occasion  ])rcscntcd  by  the  ill  success  of  Ci- 
mon  both  to  ruin  that  leader  and  to  strike  a  fatal  blow  at  the  aris- 
tocratic party.  lie  deprived  the  Areopagus  of  its  chief  functions, 
and  left  it  a  mere  shadow  of  its  former  influence  and  j^ower.  He 
rendered  the  election  to  magistracies  dependent  simjsly  ujjon  lot, 
so  that  every  citizen,  however  poor,  had  an  equal  ci-.aiice  of  ob- 
taining the  honours  of  tlie  state.  Other  changes  which  accom- 
].anied  this  revolution — for  such  it  must  be  called — were  the  insti- 
tution of  paid  dicostcrics  or  jury-courts,  and  the  almost  entire  ab- 
rogation of  the  judicial  power  of  the  Senate  of  Eive  Hundred.  It 
cannot  bo  su])posed  tluit  such  fundamental  changes  were  efl'ectcd 
without  violent  party  strife.  The  poet  ^^schylus,  in  the  tragedy 
of  the  Euvicnides,  in  vain  exerted  all  the  powers  of  his  genius  in 
support  of  the  aristocratical  party  and  of  the  tottering  Areopagus  ; 
his  exertions  on  this  occasion  resulted  onl}'  in  his  own  flight  from 
Athens.  The  same  fate  attended  Cimon  himself;  and  he  was 
condemned  by  ostracism  (n.c.  4('.l)  to  a  ten  years'  banishment. 
Nay,  partv  violence  even  went  the  length  of  assassination.  Ephi- 
altcs,  who  had  taken  the  lead  in  the  attacks  upon  the  Areopagus, 
fell  beneath  the  dagger  of  a  Ba^otian,  hired  by  the  conservativo 
party  to  despatch  him. 

It  was  from  tliis  period  (r..r.  4G1)  that  the  long  administration 
fcf  I'ericles  may  l)c  said  to  liavc  commenced.  The  cllccts  of  his 
accession  to  power  soon  became  visible  in  the  foreign  relations  of 
Athens,  rericles  had  succeeded  to  the  political  principles  of 
Themistoclcs,  and  his  aim  was  to  render  Athens  the  leading  pow- 
er of  Greece.  The  Confederacy  of  Dclos  had  already  secured  her 
maritime  ascendency;  Pericles  directed  his  policy  to  the  extension 
of  her  influence  in  continental  Greece.  She  fonned  an  alliance 
witli  the  Thessalians,  Argos,  and  ISIcgara.  The  possession  of  ile- 
gura  was  of  great  iinjiortance,  as  it  enabled  the  Athenians  to  ar- 
rest the  progress  of  an  invading  army  from  I'cloitonucsus.    .^gina. 


B.C.  418.         rPiEDOMINANCE  OF  ATUEXS.  77 

so  lonir  th3  maritime  rival  of  Athens,  was  subdued  and  made  trih . 
utarr.  The  Athenian^!  marched  v.ath  ra})id  steps  to  the  dominion 
of  Greece.  Shortly  afterwards  the  battle  of  CEnopliyta  (b.c.  45G), 
in  which  the  Athenians  defeated  the  Boeotians,  gave  Athens  tho 
command  of  Thebes,  and  of  all  the  other  Ba^otian  towns.  From 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth  to  the  Straits  of  Thermopykia  Athenian  influ- 
ence was  now  predominant.  Daring  these  events  the  Athenians 
had  continued  to  prosecute  the  war  against  Persia.  In  the  yei.f 
B.C.  460  they  sent  a  powerful  fleet  to  Egypt  to  assist  Inarus,  win 
had  revolted  against  Persia ;  but  this  expedition  proved  a  com- 
plete failure,  for  at  the  end  of  six  years  the  revolt  was  put  down 
by  the  Persians,  and  the  Atlienian  fleet  destroyed  (b.c.  455).  At 
a  later  period  (b.c.  449),  Cimon,  Avho  had  been  recalled  from  ex- 
ile, sailed  to  Cyprus  with  a  fleet  of  209  ships.  He  undertook  the 
siege  of  Citium  in  that  island,  but  died  during  the  progi-ess  of 
it,  either  from  disease  or  from  the  eflects  of  a  wound.  Shortly 
afterwards  a  pacification  was  concluded  with  Persia,  which  is  some- 
times, but  erroneously,  called  "  the  peace  of  Cimon."  It  is  stated 
that  by  this  compact  the  Persian  monarch  agreed  not  to  tax  or 
molest  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  nor  to  send 
any  vessels  of  war  Avestward  of  Phaselis  in  Lycia,  or  within  tho 
Cyanean  rocks  at  the  junction  of  the  Euxine  with  the  Tliracian 
Bosporus;  the  Athenians  on  their  side  undertaking  to  leave  the 
Persians  in  undisputed  possession  of  Cyprus  and  Egypt.  During 
the  progress  of  these  events,  the  states  which  formed  the  Confed- 
eracy of  Delos,  with  the  exception  of  Chios,  Lesbos,  and  Samos, 
had  gradually  become,  instead  of  the  active  allies  of  Athens,  her 
disarmed  and  passive  tributaries.  Even  the  custody  of  the  fund 
had  been  transferred  from  Delos  to  Athens.  The  purpose  for 
which  the  confederacy  had  been  originally  organized  disappeared 
with  the  Persian  peace ;  yet  what  may  now  be  called  Imperial 
Athens  continued,  for  her  own  ends,  to  exercise  her  prerogatives 
as  head  of  the  league.  Her  alliances,  as  we  have  seen,  had  like- 
wise been  extended  in  continental  Greece,  where  they  embraced 
Megara,  Boeotia,  Phocis,  Locris ;  together  with  Troezen  and  Achaia 
in  Peloponnesus.  Such  was  the  position  of  Athens  in  the  year 
448  B.C.,  the  period  of  her  greatest  power  and  prosperity.  From 
this  time  her  empire  began  to  decline ;  while  Sparta,  and  other 
watchful  and  jealous  enemies,  stood  ever  ready  to  strike  a  blow. 

In  the  following  year  (b.c.  447)  a  revolution  in  Boeotia  deprived 
Athens  of  her  ascendency  in  that  country.  With  an  overweening 
contempt  of  their  enemies,  a  small  band  of  1000  Athenian  lioplites, 
chiefly  composed  of  youthful  volunteers  belonging  lo  the  best  Athe- 
nian families,  together  with  a  few  auxiliaries,  marched  imder  the 


78  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  IX, 

command  of  Tolmides  to  put  down  tlic  revolt,  in  direct  ojiposition 
to  the  advica  of  Pericles,  who  adjurcil  them  to  w:iit  and  collect  a 
more  numerous  force.  The  enterprise  proved  disastrous  in  the 
extreme.  Tolmides  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Ciiaeronca;  a 
large  number  of  the  lio])litcs  also  fell  in  the  engagement,  whilst  a 
still  larger  number  were  taken  ])risoners.  This  last  circumstance 
proved  fatal  to  the  interests  of  Athens  in  Baotia.  In  order  to  re- 
cover these  prisoners  she  agreed  to  evacuate  Bocotia,  and  to  penniv 
the  re-establishment  of  the  aristocracies  which  she  had  formerly 
overthrown.  But  the  Athenian  reverses  did  not  end  here.  Tho 
expulsion  of  the  i)artisans  of  Athens  from  the  government  of  Pho- 
cis  and  Locris,  and  the  revolt  of  Euboca  and  Megara,  were  an- 
nounced in  quick  succession.  Tlie  youthful  Pleistoanax,  king  of 
Sparta,  actually  penetrated,  with  an  army  of  Lacedaemonians  and 
Peloponnesian  allies,  as  far  as  the  neighbourhood  of  Eleusis;  and 
the  capital  itself,  it  is  said,  was  saved  only  by  Pericles  having 
bribed  the  Spartan  monarch.  Pericles  reconquered  Eubwa ;  but 
this  was  the  only  possession  which  the  Athenians  succeeded  in  re- 
covering. Their  emjare  on  land  had  vanished  more  speedily  than 
it  b.ad  been  acquired;  and  they  were  therefore  induced  to  CdU- 
clude,  at  the  beginning  of  n.c.  44"),  a  Tiiikty  Yeaks'  Truce  with 
Sparta  and  her  allies,  by  which  they  consented  to  abandon  all  tho 
acquisitions  which  they  had  made  in  Peloponnesus,  and  to  leave 
Megara  to  be  included  among  the  Peloponnesian  allies  of  8j)arta. 
From  the  Thirty  Years'  Truce  to  the  commencement  of  the  I'e- 
loponncsian  war,  (aw  political  events  of  any  importance  occurred. 
During  these  fourteen  years  (n.c.  445-431)  Pericles  continued  to 
enjoy  the  sole  direction  of  affairs.  His  views  were  of  the  most  lofty 
kind.  Athens  was  to  become  the  capital  of  Greece,  and  the  centre 
of  art  and  refinement.  In  her  external  aiii>earance  tlie  city  was  to 
be  rendered  worthy  of  the  high  position  to  which  she  aspired,  by 
the  beauty  and  splendour  of  her  public  buildings,  by  her  works  of 
art  in  sculpture,  architecture,  and  painting,  and  by  the  i)omp  and 
magnificence  of  her  religious  festivals.  All  these  objects  Athens 
was  enabled  to  attain  in  an  incredibly  short  si)ace  of  time,  through 
tlie  genius  and  energy  of  her  citizens,  and  the  vast  resources  at  her 
command.  No  state  lias  ever  exhibited  so  much  intellectual  ac- 
tivity and  so  great  a  progress  in  art  as  was  disjdaycd  by  Athens  in 
the  ])eriod  wliicli  clajjsed  between  the  'i'hirty  Years'  Truce  and  the 
breaking  out  of  the  I'elopunnesiau  war.  bhe  was  the  seat  and 
centre  of  Grecian  literature.  The  three  great  tragic  poets  of 
Greece  were  natives  of  Attica.  Jl^^schylus,  the  earliest  of  the 
throe,  had  recently  died  in  Sicily  ;  but  St)])h()clcs  was  now  at  the 
full  height  of  his  reputation,  and  Eurijiidcs  was  rapidly  rising  into 
notice.      Aristoiiliaiies,  the  greatest  of  the  comic  p()"ts,  was  Jilso 


B.C.  440.  PERICLES.  79 

born  in  Attica,  and  exliibited  plays  soon  after  tho  beginning  of  the 
Feloponncsiau  war.  Herodotus,  the  Father  of  History,  though  a 
native  of  Halicarnassus  in  Asia  Minor,  resided  some  time  at  Athens, 
and  accompanied  a  colony  which  the  Athenians  sent  to  Thurii  in 
Italy.  Thucydides,  the  greatest  of  Greek  historians,  was  an  Athe- 
Hian,  and  was  a  young  man  at  this  period. 

Colonization,  for  wliich  the  genius  and  inclination  of  the  Athe- 
nians had  always  been  suited,  was  another  method  adopted  by  Per- 
icles for  extending  the  influence  and  empire  of  Athens.  The  set- 
tlements made  under  his  auspices  were  of  two  kinds,  ClerucJdes^ 
and  regular  colonies.  The  former  mode  was  exclusively  Athe- 
nian. It  consisted  in  the  allotment  of  land  in  conquered  or  sub- 
ject countries  to  certain  bodies  of  Athenians,  who  continued  to 
retain  all  their  original  rights  of  citizenship.  This  circumstance, 
as  well  as  the  convenience  of  entering  upon  land  already  in  a  state 
of  cultivation,  instead  of  having  to  reclaim  it  from  the  rude  condi- 
tion of  nature,  seems  to  have  rendered  sut*a  a  mode  of  settlement 
much  preferred  by  the  Athenians.  The  earliest  instance  which  we 
find  of  it  is  in  the  year  b.c.  50G,  when  four  thousand  Athenians 
entered  upon  the  domains  of  the  Chalcidian  knights  (see  p.  38). 
But  it  was  under  Pericles  that  this  system  was  most  extensively 
adopted.  During  his  administration  1000  Athenian  citizens  were 
settled  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  500  in  Naxos,  and  250  in 
Andros.  The  islands  of  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros,  as  well  as 
a  large  tract  in  the  north  of  Euboea,  were  also  completely  occupied 
by  Athenian  proprietors. 

The  most  important  colonies  settled  by  Pericles  were  those  of 
Thurii  and  Amphipolis.  Since  the  destruction  of  Sj^baris  by  the 
Crotoniates  in  b.c.  509,  the  former  inhabitants  had  lived  dispersed 
in  the  adjoining  territory  along  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum.  •  In  b.c. 
443  Pericles  sent  out  a  colonv  to  found  Thurii,  near  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Sybaris.  The  colony  of  Amphipolis  was  founded  some 
years  later  (r..c.  437),  under  the  conduct  of  Agnon. 

But  Pericles,  notwithstanding  his  influence  and  power,  had  still 
many  bitter  and  active  enemies,  who  assailed  him  through  his 
private  connections,  and  even  endeavoured  to  wound  his  honour 
by  a  charge  of  peculation.  Pericles,  after  divorcing  a  wife  with 
wliom  lie  had  lived  unhappily,  took  his  mistress  Aspasia  to  his 
house,  and  dwelt  with  her  till  his  death  on  terms  of  the  greatest 
affection.  She  was  distinguished  not  only  for  her  beauty,  but  also 
for  her  learning  and  accomplishments.  Her  intimacy  with  An- 
axagoras,  the  celebrated  Ionic  philosopher,  was  made  a  handle  for 
wounding  Pericles  in  his  tenderest  relations.  Paganism,  notwith- 
standing its  license,  was  capable  of  producing  bigots ;  and  even  at 
Athens  the  man  who  ventured  to  dispute  the  exist-^*  oe  of  a  hund- 


60  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  IX. 

red  gods  ■with  morals  and  passions  somewhat  worse  than  those  of 
ordinar}'  human  nature,  did  so  at  the  risk  of  his  life.  Anaxag- 
oras  was  indicted  for  impiety.  Aspasia  was  included  in  the  same 
charge,  and  dragged  before  the  courts  of  justice.  Anaxagoraa 
prudently  fled  from  Athens,  and  thus  probably  avoided  a  fate  which, 
in  conseqiicnce  of  a  simihir  accusation,  afterwards  overtook  Socra- 
tes. Pericles  himself  pleaded  the  cause  of  Aspasia.  lie  was  in- 
deed indirectly  implicated  in  tlie  indictment ;  but  he  felt  no  con- 
cci'n  except  for  his  beloved  Aspasia,  and  on  this  occasion  the  cold 
and  somewhat  haughty  statesman,  whom  the  most  violent  storms 
of  the  assembly  could  not  deprive  of  his  self-possession,  was  for 
once  seen  to  wcej).  His  appeal  to  the  jury  was  successful,  but  an- 
other trial  still  awaited  him.  An  indictment  was  preferred  against 
his  friend,  the  great  scul[)tor  Phidias,  for  the  embezzlement  of  the 
gold  intended  to  adorn  the  celebrated  ivory  statue  of  Athena;  and, 
according  to  some,  Pericles  himself  was  included  in  the  charge  of 
peculation.  Whetlier  Pericles  was  ever  actually  tried  on  this  ac- 
cusation is  uncertain  ;  but,  at  all  events,  if  he  Avas,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  he  was  honourably  acquitted.  The  gold  employed  in 
the  statue  had  been  fixed  in  such  a  manner  that  it  could  be  de- 
tached and  weighed,  and  Pericles  challenged  his  accusers  to  tlic 
proof.  But  Phidias  did  not  escape  so  fortunately.  There  were 
other  circumstances  which  rendered  him  unpopular,  and  amongst 
them  the  fact  that  he  had  introduced  portraits  both  of  himself  and 
Pericles  in  the  sculjitiircs  which  adorned  the  fiieze  of  the  Parthe- 
non.     Phidias  died  in  prison  before  tlie  day  of  trial. 

The  Athenian  emi)ire,  since  the  conclusion  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
Truce,  had  again  become  exclusively  maritime.  Yet  even  among 
the  subjects  and  allies  united  with  Athens  by  the  Confederacy  of 
Delos,  her  sway  was  borne  with  growing  discontent.  One  of  the 
chief  causes  of  this  dissatisfaction  was  the  amount  of  the  tribute 
exacted  by  the  Athenians,  as  well  as  their  misapplication  of  the 
proceeds.  In  the  time  of  Aristides  and  Cimon,  when  an  active  war 
was  carrying  on  against  the  IVrsians,  the  sum  annually  collected 
amounted  to  4G()  talents.  In  the  time  of  Pericles,  although  that 
ivar  had  been  brought  to  a  close,  the  tribute  had  nevertheless  in- 
creased to  the  annunl  sum  of  000  talents.  Another  grievance  was 
the  transference  to  Athens  of  all  lawsuits,  at  least  of  all  public 
suits;  for  on  this  subject  we  ;ire  unable  to  drav/  the  line  distinct- 
ly. In  criminal  cases,  at  all  events,  the  allies  seem  to  have  been 
deprived  of  the  jjower  to  inflict  cajjital  punishment.  Besides  all 
these  caiises  of  complaint,  the  allies  hail  often  to  endure  the  op- 
pressions and  exactions  of  the  Athenian  oflicers,  both  military  and 
naval,  as  well  as  of  the  rich  and  powerful  Athenian  citizens  settled 
imonc  lliem 


B.C.  43D.  CORCYRA  AND  CORINllI.  «1 

In  B.C.  440,  Samos,  one  of  tho  tlirco  independent  allies  already 
mentioned,  revolted  from  Athens;  but  even  this  island  was  no  match 
for  the  Athenian  power.  Pericles,  who  sailed  against  the  Samians 
in  person,  defeated  their  fleet  in  several  engagements,  and  forced 
the  city  to  capitulate.  The  Samians  were  compelled  to  raze  tlieir 
fortifications,  to  surrender  their  fleet,  to  give  hostages  for  their  fu- 
ture conduct,  and  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

The  triumphs  and  the  power  of  Athens  were  regarded  with  fear 
and  jealousy  by  her  rivals  ;  and  the  quarrel  between  Corinth  and 
Corcyra  ligiited  the  spark  which  Avas  to  produce  the  conflagration. 
On  tlie  coast  of  Illyria,  near  the  site  of  the  modern  Durazzo,  the 
Corcyrasans  had  founded  the  city  of  Epidamnus.  Corcyra  (now 
Corfu)  was  itself  a  colony  of  Corinth  ;  and  though  long  at  enmity 
with  its  mother  country,  was  forced,  according  to  the  time-hallow- 
ed custom  of  the  Greeks  in  such  matters,  to  select  the  founder  of 
Epidamnus  from  the  Corinthians.  Accordingly,  Corinth  became 
the  metropolis  of  Epidamnus  as  well  as  of  Corcyra.  At  the  time 
of  which  we  speak,  the  Epidamnians,  being  hard  pressed  by  the 
Illyrians,  led  by  soriie  oligarchical  exiles  of  their  own  city,  applied 
to  Corcyra  for  assistance,  which  the  Corcyrtcans,  being  connected 
with  the  Epidamnian  oligarchy,  refused.  The  Epidamnians  then 
sought  help  from  the  Corinthians,  who  undertook  to  assist  them. 
The  Corcyrajans,  highly  resenting  this  interference,  attacked  the 
Corinthian  fleet  off  Cape  Actium,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  (n.c. 
435). 

Deeply  humbled  by  this  defeat,  the  Corinthians  spent  the  two 
following  years  in  active  preparations  for  retrieving  it.  The  Cor- 
cyraeans,  who  had  not  enrolled  themselves  either  in  the  Lacedae- 
monian or  Athenian  alliance,  and  therefore  stood  alone,  were  great- 
ly alarmed  at  these  preparations.  They  now  resolved  to  remedy  this 
deficiency ;  and,  as  Corinth  belonged  to  the  Lacedaemonian  alli- 
ance, the  Corcyrasans  had  no  option,  and  were  obliged  to  apply  to 
Athens.  The  majority  of  the  Athenians  were  ready  to  comply  with 
their  request;  but,  in  order  to  avoid  an  open  infringement  of  tho 
Thirty  Years'  Truce,  it  was  resolved  to  conclude  only  a  dcfensivo 
alliance  with  Corcyra — that  is,  to  defend  the  Corcyrrcans  in  case 
their  territories  were  actually  invaded  by  the  Corinthians,  but  be- 
yond that  not  to  lend  them  any  active  assistance.  A  small  Athe- 
niaii  squadron  of  only  10  triremes  was  despatched  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Corcyra?ans.  Soon  after  their  arri^-al  a  battle  ensued  off  the 
coast  of  Epirus,  betvv'een  tho  Corinthian  and  Corcyraean  fleets.  Aft- 
er a  hard-fought  day,  victory  finally  declared  in  favour  of  the  Co- 
rinthians. The  Athenians  now  abandoned  tlieir  neutrality,  and  did 
all  in  their  power  to  save  tlie  flying  Corcvrasans  from  their  pur- 


82  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  IX 

suors.  This  action  took  place  early  in  the  niorninp;  and  the  Co- 
rhithians  prepared  to  renew  the  attack  in  the  afternoon,  when  thev 
saw  in  the  distance  20  Athenian  vessels,  which  they  believed  to  bo 
tlie  advanced  guard  of  a  still  larger  fleet.  They  accordingly  sail- 
ed away  to  the  coast  of  Epirus  ;  but,  finding  that  the  Athenians 
did  not  mean  to  undertake  offensive  operations  against  them,  they 
departed  homewards  with  their  whole  fleet.  These  events  took 
place  in  the  year  B.C.  432. 

The  Corinthians  were  naturally  incensed  at  the  conduct  of 
Athens,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  they  should  have  watched 
for  an  opportunity  of  revenge.  This  was  soon  afforded  them  by  tlici 
enmity  of  the  Macedonian  prince  Perdiccas  towards  the  Athenians. 
lie  incited  her  tributaries  upon  the  coast  of  Macedonia  to  revolt, 
including  Potida^a,  a  town  seated  on  tlie  isthmus  of  Pallene,  Poti. 
d:ea,  though  now  a  tributary  of  Athens,  was  originally  a  colony  of 
the  Corinthians,  and  received  from  them  certain  annual  magistrates. 
Being  urged  as  well  by  the  Corinthians  as  by  Perdiccas,  the  l^oti- 
da;ans  openly  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  (b.c.  432).  A  powerful 
Athenian  annament  was  despatched  to  the  coast  of  Macedonia  and 
laid  siege  to  Potidaca. 

Meanwhile  the  Lacedaemonians,  iirged  on  all  sides  by  the  com- 
plaints of  their  allies  against  Athens,  summoned  a  general  meet- 
ing of  the  Peloponnesian  confederacy  at  Sparta.  The  Corinthians 
took  tlie  most  prominent  part  in  the  debate  ;  but  other  members  of 
the  confederacy  had  also  heavy  grievances  to  allege  against  Athens. 
Foremost  among  these  were  the  JNIegarians,  who  complained  that 
their  commerce  had  been  ruined  by  a  recent  decree  of  the  Athe- 
nians which  excluded  them  from  eveiy  port  within  the  Athenian 
jurisdiction.  It  was  generally  felt  that  the  time  had  now  arrived 
for  cliecking  the  power  of  Athens.  Influenced  by  these  feelings, 
the  Lacedaemonians  decided  upon  war;  and  the  congress  passed  a 
resolution  to  the  same  effect,  thus  binding  the  whole  Peloponne- 
Bian  confederacy  to  the  same  policy.  This  important  res(dution 
was  adopted  towards  the  close  of  v..c.  432,  or  early  in  the  following 
year.  Lefore  any  actual  declaration  of  war,  hostilities  were  begun 
in  the  spring  of  u.c.  431  by  a  treacherous  attack  of  the  Thebans 
upon  Plataa.  Though  Baotians  by  descent,  the  Plata'ans  did  not 
belong  to  the  Ba^otian  league,  but  had  long  been  in  close  alliance 
with  the  Atlicnicans,  Hence  they  were  regarded  with  liatred  and 
jealousy  by  the  Thebans,  whicli  sentiments  were  also  shared  l)y  a 
small  oligarchical  faction  in  Plata-a  itself.  The  Platrean  oligarcha 
secretly  admitted  a  body  of  300  Thebans  into  the  town  at  night ; 
but  the  attempt  proved  a  faihu'c  ;  the  citizens  flew  to  arms;  and  in 
tlie  morning  all  the  Thebans  were  cither  blaiu  or  taken  i)riscncrii 


11 II 


't. 


Temple  uf  >.'iko  Aptc.  us  (the  Wingless  V^ictoiy),  on  the  Aci'opolis  at  Atlicna. 


CHAPTER  X. 

ATHENS    IN   THE    TIME    OF    PERICLES. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  Peloponncsian  war  Athens  was 
at  the  height  of  its  glory  under  the  brilliant  administration  of  Peri- 
cles. We  may  therefore  here  pause  to  take  a  brief  survey  of  the 
city  and  of  its  most  important  buildings.  Athens  is  situated  about 
thi'ee  miles  from  the  sea-coast,  in  the  central  plain  of  Attica.  In 
this  plain  rise  several  eminences.  Of  these  the  most  prominent 
Is  a  lofty  insulated  mountain,  with  a  conical  peaked  summit,  now 
called  the  hill  of  St.  George,  and  which  bore  in  ancient  times  the 
name  of  Lycabettus.  This  mountain,  which  Avas  not  included 
within  the  ancient  walls,  lies  to  the  north-east  of  Athens,  and 
forms  the  most  striking  feature  in  the  environs  of  the  city.  It  is 
to  Athens  what  Vesuvius  is  to  Naples,  or  Arthur's  Seat  to  Edin- 
burgh. South-west  of  Lycabettus  there  are  four  hills  of  moderate 
height,  all  of  which  formed  part  of  the  city.  Of  these  the  nearest 
to  Lycabettus,  and  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  from  the  latter,  Avas 
the  Acropolis,  or  citadel  of  Atliens,  a  square  craggy  rock  rising 
abruptly  about  150  feet,  with  a  flat  summit  of  about  1000  feet  long 
from  east  to  west,  by  500  feet  broad  from  north  to  south.  Im- 
mediately west  of  the  Acropolis  is  a  second  hill  of  irregular  form, 
the  Areopagus.     To  the  south-west  there  rises  a  third  liill.  the 


86 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  X. 


Pmjx,  on  which  the  assemblies  of  the  citizens  were  held ;  and  to 
the  south  of  the  latter  is  a  fourth  hill,  known  as  the  Museum. 
On  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  city  there  run  two  small 
streams,  which  are  nearly  exhausted  before  they  reach  the  sea,  by 
the  heats  of  summer  and  by  the  channels  for  artificial  irrigation. 


I'l:in  of  Athens. 


1.  Pnyx  Eoclcsia. 

v.  Tlieseum. 

3.  Tlieutro  of  Dionysus. 


4.  Odcuni  of  Poricloa. 
6.  Tt-iuiilo  of  the  Olympinn 
Zeus. 


That  on  the  east  is  the  Ilissus,  which  flowed  through  the  southern 
quarter  of  the  city  :  that  on  the  west  is  the  Cci)hissus.  South  of 
the  city  was  seen  the  Saronic  Gulf,  Avith  the  liarbours  of  Athens. 

Athens  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  ])rominencc 
piven  to  the  worship  of  Athena  by  its  king  Erechlheus.  The  in- 
habitants were  previously  called  Cranai  and  Cecropida),  from  Ce- 
crops,  who,  according  to  tradition,  was  the  original  founder  of  the 
city.  This  at  lirst  occupied  only  the  hill  or  rock  wliich  afterwards 
became  the  Armjjo/is  ;  but  gradually  the  buildings  began  to  spread 
over  the  ground  at  the  southern  foot  of  thi-s  hill.  It  Avas  not  till 
the  time  of  Tisistratus  and  his  sons  (n.c.  r>(j()-r)14)  that  the  city 
began  to  assume  any  degree  of  splendour.  The  most  remarkable 
building  of  these  dcsjjots  was  the  gigantic  tcm]»le  of  the  Olymjiian 


CUAP.  X. 


CITY  OF  ATHENS. 


8? 


Zeus,  which,  however,  was  not  finished  till  many  centuries  later. 
In  B.C.  500  the  theatre  of  Dionysus  was  commenced  on  the  soiith- 
eastern  slope  of  the  Acropolis,  but  was  not  completed  till  b.g.  340 ; 
though  it  must  have  been  used  for  the  representation  of  plays  long 
before  that  period. 


Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus. 

Xerxes  reduced  the  ancient  city  almost  to  a  heap  of  ashes. 
After  the  departure  of  the  Persians,  its  reconstruction  on  a  much 
larger  scale  was  commenced  under  the  superintendence  of  The- 
mistocles,  whose  first  care  was  to  provide  for  its  safety  by  the  erec- 
tion of  walls.  The  Acropolis  now  formed  the  centre  of  the  city, 
round  which  the  new  walls  described  an  irregular  circle  of  about 
60  stadia  or  7i  miles  in  circumference.  The  space  thus  inclosed 
formed  the  Asty,  or  city,  properly  so  called.  But  the  views  of 
Themistocles  were  not  confined  to  the  mere  defence  of  Athens : 
he  contemplated  making  her  a  great  naval  power,  and  for  this 
purpose  adequate  docks  and  arsenals  Avere  required.  Previously 
the  Athenians  had  used  as  their  only  harbour  the  open  roadstead 


88  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Ci'ap.  X. 

of  Phalcrum  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Phalcric  bay,  where  the 
Bea-shore  is  nearest  to  Athens.  But  Themistocles  transferred  the 
naval  station  of  the  Athenians  to  tlie  peninsula  of  Pirajus,  Avhicli 
is  distant  about  4^  miles  from  Athens,  and  contains  three  natural 
harbours — a  large  one  on  the  western  side,  called  simply  Pinrns, 
or  The  Ilarbo7tr,  and  two  smaller  ones  on  the  eastern  side,  called 
respectively  Zca  and  Mtmyckia,  the  latter  being  nearest  to  the 
city.  It  was  not  till  the  administration  of  Pericles  that  the  walls 
were  built  which  connected  Athens  with  her  ports.  These  were 
at  first  the  outer  or  northern  Long  Wall,  Avhich  ran  from  Atliens  to 
PiraBus,  and  the  Phaleric  wall  qonnecting  the  city  with  Phalerum. 
These  were  commenced  in  r-.c.  4o7,  and  finished  in  the  following 
year.  It  was  soon  found,  however,  that  the  space  thus  inclosed 
Avas  too  vast  to  be  easily  defended;  and  as  the  port  of  Phalcrum 
was  small  and  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  Piraus,  and 
soon  ceased  to  be  used  by  the  Athenian  ships  of  war,  its  Avail  was 
abandoned  and  probably  alloAved  to  fall  into  decay.  Its  place 
Avas  snpi)lied  by  another  Long  Wall,  Avhich  Avas  built  parallel  to 
the  first  at  a  distance  of  only  550  feet,  thus  rendering  both  capa- 
ble of  being  defended  by  the  same  body  of  men.  Tlieir  height  in 
all  probability  Avas  not  less  than  GO  feet.  In  process  of  time  the 
space  betAA-een  the  two  Long  Walls  Avas  occupied  on  each  side  by 
houses. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  description  that  Athens,  in 
its  larger  accci)tation,  and  including  its  port,  consisted  of  tAvo  cir- 
cular cities,  the  Asty  and  Piroms,  each  of  about  Ih  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  joined  together  by  a  broad  street  of  betAveen  four 
and  five  miles  long. 

Such  Avas  the  outAvard  and  material  form  of  that  city,  Avhich 
during  the  i)eriod  between  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian  Avars 
reached  the  highest  pitch  of  military,  artistic,  and  literary  glory. 
The  latter  portion  of  tliis  period,  or  that  comprised  under  the  as- 
cendency of  Pericles,  cxliibits  Athenian  art  in  its  highest  state  of 
perfection,  and  is  therefore  by  Avay  of  excellence  commonly  desig- 
nated as  the  age  of  Pericles.  The  great  sculptor  of  tliis  period — 
perhaps  the  greatest  the  Avorld  has  ever  seen — Avas  Pliidias,  to 
whom  Pericles  intrusted  the  superintendence  of  all  the  Avorks  ex- 
ecuted in  his  administration. 

The  first  public  monuments  tliat  arose  after  the  Persian  Avars 
were  erected  under  the  auspices  of  Cimon,  Avho  Avas,  like  Pericles, 
a  lover  and  patron  of  the  arts.  The  principal  of  these  AN'ere  the 
small  Ionic  tem])li;  of  Niko  Apteros  (Wingless  Victory),  and  the 
Theseum,  or  Temple  of  Theseus.  The  temple  of  Nike  Apteros 
was  only  27  feet  in  length  by  18  in  breadth,  and  Avas  expected  on 


Chap.  X. 


MONUMENTS  OF  CIMON. 


89 


the  Acropolis  in  commemoration  of  Cimon's  victory  at  the  Eurym- 
cdon.  A  view  of  it  is  given  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter, 
and  its  position  on  the  Acropolis,  on  one  side  of  the  Propylaa,  is 
seen  in  the  drawings  on  p.  91,  as  well  as  on  the  Frontispiece  of 
the  work. 


The  Theseum  restored. 

The  Theseum  is  situated  on  a  height  to  the  north  of  the  Areop- 
agus, and  was  built  to  receive  the  bones  of  Theseus,  which  Cimon 
brought  from  Scyros  in  B.C.  469.  It  was  probably  finished  about 
4G5,  and  is  the  best  preserved  of  all  the  monuments  of  ancient 
Athens.  It  was  at  once  a  tomb  and  temple,  and  possessed  the 
privileges  of  an  asylum.  It  is  of  the  Doric  order,  104  feet  in 
lengtli  by  45  feet  broad,  and  surrounded  with  columns. 

But  it  was  the  Acropolis  which  was  the  chief  centre  of  the 
architectural  splendour  of  Athens.  After  the  Persian  wars  the 
'Acropolis  had  ceased  to  be  inhabited,  and  was  appropriated  to  the 
worship  of  Athena  and  to  the  other  guardian  deities  of  the  city. 
It  was  covered  with  the  temples  of  gods  and  heroes ;  and  thus  ft3 
platform  presented  not  only  a  sanctuary,  but  a  museum,  contain- 
iri'r  the  finest  productions  of  the  architect  and  the  sculptor,  in  which 
the  whiteness  of  the  marble  was  relieved  by  brilliant  colours,  and 
rendered  still  more  dazzling  by  the  transparent  clearness  of  tho 


90 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  X. 


Athenir.n  atmosphere.  It  was  surrounded  with  walls,  and  the 
surface  seems  to  have  been  divided  into  terraces  communicating 
«vith  one  another  by  steps.  The  only  approach  to  it  was  from  the 
Agora  on  its  western  side.  At  tlie  top  of  a  magnificent  flight  of 
marble  steps,  70  feet  broad,  stood  tlie  Propykta,  constructed  under 


1.  Parthenon. 

2.  Erechilicuin. 


Plan  of  the  Acropolis. 

3.  Propyla-ft. 

4.  Tuii;i)le  of  Nike  Apteros. 
5.  Statue  of  Athena  Promacbus- 


the  auspices  of  Pericles,  and  which  served  as  a  suitable  entrance 
to  the  exquisite  woiks  within.  The  Proi)ylKa  were  themselves 
one  of  the  masterjneces  of  Athenian  art.  They  were  cntii*ely  of 
rentelic  marble,  and  covered  tlie  whole  of  the  western  end  of  the 
Acropolis,  having  a  breadth  of  1C8  feet.  Tiic  central  ])ortion  of 
.;hem  consisted  of  two  porticoes,  of  which  the  western  one  faced 
I;he  city,  and  the  eastern  one  the  interior  of  the  Acropolis,  each 
consisting  of  a  front  of  six  fluted  Doric  columns.  This  central 
part  of  the  building  was  58  feet  in  breadth,  but  the  remaining 
breadth  of  the  rock  at  this  point  was  covered  by  two  wings,  which 
projected  2G  feet  in  front  of  the  western  portico.  Each  of  these 
wings  was  in  the  form  of  a  Doric  temple.  The  northern  one,  or 
that  on  the  left  of  a  i)crson  ascending  the  Acropolis,  was  called  the 
I'inacotlicca,  from  its  walls  being  covered  witli  paintings.  The 
southern  wing  consisted  only  of  a  ])orch  or  oi)en  gallery.  Im- 
mediately before  its  western  front  stood  the  little  temple  of  Niko 
Apteros  already  mentioned. 

On  ])assing  through  tlu;  rropyhva  all  the  glories  of  the  Acropolis 
became  visible.     The  chiut'ljuihling  waa  the  I'artlienon  (/.  €.,  llouio 


Chap.  X.     THE  TROrYLiEA— THE  PARTHENON. 


91 


of  the  Virgin),  the  most  perfect  production  of  Grecian  architecture. 
It  derived  its  name  from  its  being  the  temple  of  Athena  I'arthenos, 
or  Athena  the  Virgin,  the  invincible  goddess  of  war.  It  was  also 
called  Ilecatompedon,  from  its  breadth  of  100  feet.  It  was  built 
under  the  administration  of  Pericles,  and  was  completed  in  B.C. 
438.  The  Parthenon  stood  on  the  highest  part  of  the  Acropolis, 
near  its  centre,  and  probably  occupied  the  site  of  an  earlier  temple 
destroyed  by  the  Persians.  It  was  entirely  of  Pentelic  marble,  on 
a  rustic  basement  of  ordinaiy  limestone,  and  its  architecture,  which 
was  of  the  Doric  order,  Avas  of  the  purest  kind.  Its  dimensions 
were  about  228  feet  in  length,  101  feet  in  breadth,  and  66  feet  in 
height  to  the  top  of  the  pediment.  It  consisted  of  a  cella,  sur- 
rounded by  a  peristyle.  The  cella  was  divided  into  two  chambers 
of  unequal  size,  the  eastern  one  of  which  Avas  about  98  feet  long, 
and  the  western  one  about  43  feet.  The  ceiling  of  both  these 
chambers  was  supported  by  rows  of  columns.  The  Avhole  build- 
ing Avas  adorned  Avith  the  most  exquisite  sculptures,  executed  by 


The  Propylsea  restored. 


A.  Pinncotlieca. 

B.  Temple  of  Nike  Apteros. 

C.  Pedestal  of  Agrippa. 


I).  Road  lending  to  the  central  entrance. 

E.  Central  entrance. 

F.  Hall  corresponding  to  the  Pinscotheca. 


rarious  artists  tmdcr  the  direction  of  Phidias.  These  consisted 
of,  1.  The  sculptures  in  the  tympana  of  the  pediments  (/.  e.,  the 
inner  portion  of  the  triangular  gable  ends  of  the  roof  above  the 
two  porticoes),  each  of  which  Avas  filled  with  about  24  colossal 
figures.  The  group  in  the  eastern  or  principal  front  represented 
the  birth  of  Athena  from  the  head  of  Zeus,  and  the  Avcstern  the 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  X. 


contest  bc:;wccn  Athena  and  Poseidon  (Neptune)  for  the  land  of 
Attica.  2.  Tlie  metopes  between  the  ti-i^lyi)hs  in  tlie  frieze  of 
the  entablature  (/.  c,  the  upper  of  the  two  portions  into  Avhich  tlie 
space  between  the  columns  and  the  roof  is  divided)  were  filled 
with  sculptures  in  high  relief,  representing  a  variety  of  subjects 
relating  to  Atliena  herself,  or  to  the  indigenous  heroes  of  Attica. 
Each  tablet  was  4  feet  3  inches  square.  Those  on  the  south  side 
related  to  the  battle  of  the  Athenians  with  the  Centaurs.  One  of 
the  metopes  is  tigured  below.  3.  The  frieze  which  ran  along  out- 
side the  wall  of  the  cclla,  and  within  the  external  columns  which 
surround  the  building,  at  the  same  height  and  parallel  with  the 


\,.MM^i-^ 


The  Partheuou  restored. 


metopes,  was  sculptured  with  a  representation  of  the  Panathenaic 
festival  in  very  low  relief.  This  frieze  was  3  feet  4  inches  in 
height,  and  520  feet  in  length.  A  smiill  portion  of  the  frieze  is 
also  figured  below.  A  large  number  of  the  slabs  of  the  frieze,  to- 
gether with  sixteen  metopes  from  the  south  side,  and  several  of 
the  statues  of  the  pediments,  were  brought  to  England  by  Lord 
Elgin,  of  wliom  they  were  purchased  by  the  nation  and  deposited 
in  the  Britir^Ii  Museum. 

]>ut  the  chief  wonder  of  the  Parthenon  Avas  the  colossal  statue 
of  the  Virgin  Goddess  executed  by  Phidias  himsalf,  which  stood 
in  the  eastern  or  princij)Ml  chamber  of  the  cclla.  It  was  of  the 
sort  called  r/in/s(  /rj)/uiiiliii<',  a  i<ind  of  work  said  to  have  been  in- 
rented  by  Phidias,  in  wliich  ivory  was  substituted  for  nutrble  in 


Chap.  X. 


THE  ERECIITIIEUM. 


93 


thoso  parts  which  were  imcovcred,  while  the  place  of  the  real 
drapery  was  supplied  with  robes  and  other  ornaments  of  solid 
gold.  Its  height,  including  the  base,  was  nearly  forty  feet.  It 
represented  the  goddess  standing,  clotlied  with  a  tunic  reaching 
to  the  ankles,  with  a  spear  iu  her  left  hand,  and  an  image  of  Vic- 
tory in  her  right. 

The  Acropolis  was  adorned  witli  another  colossal  figure  of 
Athena,  in  bronze,  also  the  work  of  Phidias.  It  stood  in  the  open 
air,  nearly  opposite  the  Propylaia,  and  was  one  of  the  first  objects 
seen  after  passing  through  the  gates  of  the  latter.  With  its 
pedestal  it  must  have  stood  about  70  feet  high,  and  consequently 
towered  above  the  roof  of  the  Parthenon,  so  that  the  point  of  its 
spear  and  the  crest  of  its  helmet  were  visible  off  the  promontory  of 
Sunium  to  ships  approaching  Athens.  It  was  called  the  "Athena 
Promachus,"  because  it  represented  the  goddess  armed,  and  in  the 
very  attitude  of  battle. 


Centaur,  from  the  Metopes  of  t'ae  Partlienou. 

The  only  other  monument  on  the  summit  of  the  Acropolis  which 
it  is  necessary  to  describe  is  the  Erechtheum,  or  temple  of  Erech- 
theus.  The  traditions  resj^ecting  Erechtheus  vary,  but  according 
to  one  set  of  them  he  was  identical  with  the  god  Poseidon.  He 
was  worshipped  in  his  temple  under  the  name  of  Poseidon  Erech- 


94 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


ClIAl>.  X. 


thcns,  and  from  the  earliest  times  was  associated  with  Athena  as 
one  of  the  two  protecting  deities  of  Athens.  The  original  Ercch. 
tlieum  was  burnt  by  the  Persians,  bnt  the  new  temple  was  erected 
on  the  ancient  site.  This  could  not  have  been  otherwise  ;  for  on 
this  spot  was  the  sacred  olive-tree  which  Athena  evoked  from  the 
earth  in  her  contest  with  Poseidon,  and  also  the  well  of  salt  water 
which  Poseidon  jjroduced  by  a  stroke  of  his  trident,  the  impression 
of  which  was  seen  upon  the  rock.  The  building  was  also  called  the 
temple  of  Athena  Polias,  because  it  contained  a  separate  sanctuary 
of  the  goddess,  as  well  as  her  most  ancient  statue.     The  building 


From  the  Frieze  of  the  Parthcuou.     1  unuthcuiiic  I'rocecrfiun. 

of  the  new  Erectheum  was  not  commenced  till  the  Parthenon  and 
Propylica  were  finished,  and  probably  not  before  the  year  preceding 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Its  progress  was  rtd 
doubt  delayed  by  tliat  event,  and  it  was  probably  not  completed 
before  o93  n.c.  When  finished  it  presented  one  of  the  finest  models 
of  the  Ionic  order,  as  the  Parthenon  was  of  the  Doric.  It  stood  to 
the  north  of  the  latter  buildin;^,  and  close  to  the  northern  wall  of 
the  Acropolis.  The  form  of  the  Erechtlieum  differs  from  every 
known  exani])le  of  a  Grecian  temple.  Usually  a  Grecian  tcm])lo 
v/as  an  ublou;^  fi.i^urc  with  a  portico  at  each  extremity.  The 
Erechtlieum,  on  the  contrary,  though  oblong  in  shape,  and  having 
a  portico  at  the  eastern  or  ])rincipal  front,  had  none  at  its  western 
end,  where,  however,  a  portico  i)r()jectcd  north  and  south  from  either 
side,  thus  forming  a  kind  of  transept.  This  irregularity  seems  to 
have  l>cen  chielly  owing  to  the  necessity  of  ])rcscrving  the  different 
sanctuaries  and  religious  objects  belonging  to  the  ancient  tcmi)lc. 
A  view  of  it  is  given  opposite.  The  roof  of  the  southern  portico, 
Bs  shown  in  the  view,  was  suitported  by  six  Caryatides. 


Ciup.  X. 


THE  DIONYSIAC  THEATRE. 


9;? 


The  Erechtheum  rostored. 

Such  were  tlie  principal  objects  w^hlch  adorned  the  Acropolis  at 
the  time  of  which  Ave  are  now  speaking.  Their  general  appearance 
will  be  best  gathered  from  the  engraving  on  the  Frontispiece. 

Before  quitting  the  city  of  Athens,  there  are  two  or  three  other 
objects  of  interest  Avliich  must  be  briefly  described.  First,  the 
Dionysiac  theatre,  which  occupied  the  slope  at  the  southeastern 
extremity  of  tlie  Acropolis.  The  middle  of  it  was  excavated  out 
of  the  rock,  and  the  rows  of  scats  ascended  in  curves  one  above 
another,  the  diameter  increasing  with  the  height.  It  was  no  doubt 
sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  the  whole  body  of  Athenian  citi- 
zens, as  well  as  the  strangers  who  flocked  to  Athens  during  the 
Dionysiac  festival,  but  its  dimensions  cannot  now  be  accurately 
ascertained.  It  had  no  roof,  but  the  spectators  were  probably  pro- 
tected from  the  sun  by  an  awning,  and  from  their  elevated  seats 
they  had  a  distinct  vi<ew  of  the  sea,  and  of  the  peaked  hills  of 
Salamis  in  the  horizon.  Above  them  rose  the  Parthenon  and  the 
other  buildings  of  the  Acropolis,  so  that  they  sat  under  the  shadow 
of  the  ancestral  gods  of  the  country. 


DO  HISTOllY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  X. 

The  Arcoi)af:^ns,  or  Hill  of  Arcs  (Mars),  was  a  rocky  height  op- 
posite the  western  end  of  the  Acropolis,  from  which  it  was  sep- 
arated only  by  some  hollow  ground.  It  derived  its  name  from  the 
tradition  that  Ares  (Mars)  was  brought  to  trial  here  before  the  &»- 
Bcnibled  gods,  by  I'oseidon  (Neptune),  for  murdering  Halirrhothiug, 
the  son  of  the  latter.  It  was  here  tiiat  the  Council  of  Areopagus 
met,  frequently  called  the  tapper  Council,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  which  assembled  in  the  valley  below. 
The  Areopagites  sat  as  judges  in  the  open  air,  and  two  blocks  of 
Btone  are  still  to  be  seen,  jn'obably  those  which  were  occujtied 
respectively  by  the  accuser  and  the  accused.  The  Areopagus  was 
the  spot  where  the  Apostle  Paul  preached  to  the  men  of  Athens. 

The  Pnyx,  or  place  for  holding  the  public  assemblies  of  the 
Athenians,  stood  on  the  side  of  a  low  rocky  hill,  at  the  distance  of 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  Areopagus.  Projecting  from 
the  hill,  and  hewn  out  of  it,  still  stands  a  solid  rectangular  block, 
called  the  Bema  or  pulpit,  from  whence  the  orators  addressed  tho 
multitude  in  the  arena  before  them.  The  position  of  the  Bema 
commanded  a  view  of  the  Propyla^a  and  the  other  magnificent 
edifices  of  the  Acropolis,  while  beneath  it  was  the  city  itself, 
studded  witli  monuments  of  Athenian  glor}-.  The  Athenian  or- 
ators frequently  roused  the  national  feelings  of  their  audience  by 
pointing  to  the  Propyltea  and  to  the  other  splendid  buildings  be- 
fore them.  Between  the  Pnyx  on  the  west,  the  Areojiagus  on  the 
north,  and  the  Acroj)olis  on  the  east,  and  closely  adjoining  the 
base  of  these  hills,  stood  the  Agora  (or  market-i)lacc).  In  a  direc- 
tion from  northwest  to  southeast  a  street  called  the  Ceramlcus  r.an 
diagonally  through  the  Agora,  entering  it  through  the  valley  be- 
tween the  Pnyx  and  the  Areopagus.  The  street  was  named  after 
a  district  of  tlie  city,  which  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  Inner 
and  the  Outer  Ceramicus.  The  former  lay  within  the  city  walls, 
and  included  the  Agora.  The  Outer  Ceramicus,  which  formed  a 
handsome  suburb  on  the  northwest  of  the  city,  was  the  burial-place 
of  all  persons  honoured  with  a  jiublic  funeral.  Through  it  ran  tie 
road  to  the  gymnasium  and  gardens  of  the  Academy,  which  were 
situated  about  a  mile  from  the  walls.  The  Academy  was  the 
place  where  Plato  and  his  disciples  taught.  On  each  side  of  this 
road  were  monuments  to  illustrious  Athenians,  especially  those 
rtho  had  fallen  in  battle. 

ICast  of  the  city,  and  outside  the  walls,  was  the  LycC'um,  a  gym- 
nasium  dedicated  to  AjjcIIo  Lyceus,  and  celebrated  as  tho  place  iu 
^hich  Aristotle  taught. 


G 


ACPACIA 
Pericles  and  Aspasia. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

gSIE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR. — FIRST  TERIOD,  FROM  THE  COMMENCE. 
MENT   OF    THE   WAR   TO   THE   PEACE    OF    NICIAS,  B.C.  431-421. 

War  was  now  fairly  kindled.  All  Greece  looked  on  in  sus- 
pense as  its  two  leading  cities  were  about  to  engage  in  a  strife  of 
which  no  man  could  foresee  the  end;  but  the  youth,  with  which 
both  Athens  and  Peloponnesus  then  abounded,  having  had  no  ex- 
perience of  the  bitter  calamities  of  Avar,  rushed  into  it  with  ardour. 
It  was  a  war  of  principles  and  races.  Athens  Avas  a  champion  of 
democracy,  Sparta  of  aristocracy;  Athens  represented  the  Ionic 
tribes,  Sparta  the  Dorian  ;  the  former  were  fond  of  novelty,  the 
latter  were  conservative  and  stationary  ;  Athens  had  the  command 
of  the  9ea,  Sparta  was  stronger  upon  land.  On  the  side  of  Sparta 
was  ranged  the  whole  of  Peloponnesus,  except  Argos  and  Achaia, 
together  with  the  Megarians,  Boeotians,  Phocians,  Opuntian  Lo- 
crians,  Ambraciots,  Leucadians,  and  Anactorians.  The  allies  of 
Athens,  with  the  exception  of  the  Thessalians,  Acarnanians,  Mes- 
senians  at  Naupactus,  and  Platasans,  were  all  insular,  and  con- 
sisted of  the  Chians,  Lesbians,  Corcyraans,  and  Zacjnthians,  and 
shortly  afterwards  of  the  Cephallenians.  To  these  must  be  added 
her  tributary  towns  on  the  coasts  of  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor,  togeth- 
er with  all  the  islands  north  of  Crete,  except  Melos  and  Thera. 

T^c  Peloponnesians  commenced  the  war  by  an  invasion  of  At- 


H 


IlISTOKY  OF  GKE'ECE.  Chai-.  XI 

Kv.^/ with  a  large  army,  uiulor  tlic  command  of  tlic  Spartan  king 
Archidamus  (b.c.  431).  rericlos  had  instructed  the  inliabitants 
of  Attica  to  secure  themselves  and  their  ])roperty  within  the  wall* 
of  Athens.  They  obeyed  his  injunctions  with  reluctance,  for  tlio 
Attic  population  had  from  the  earliest  times  been  strongly  attach- 
ed to  a  rural  life.  But  tlie  circumstances  admitted  of  no  alteriia- 
tive.  Archidamus  advanced  as  far  as  AcliaruiU,  a  flourishing  At- 
tic borough  situated  only  about  seven  miles  from  Athens.  Hero 
he  encamped  on  a  rising  ground  within  sight  of  the  metropolis, 
and  began  to  lay  waste  the  country  around,  expecting  probably  by 
that  means  to  ])rovoke  tlie  Athenians  to  battle.  But  in  this  he 
was  disappointed.  Notwithstanding  the  murmurs  and  clamours 
of  the  citizens,  Pericles  remained  firm,  and  steadily  refused  to  ven- 
ture an  engagement  in  the  open  field.  The  Peloponncsians  re- 
tired from  Attica  after  still  further  ravaging  the  country;  and  the 
Atlienians  retaliated  by  making  descents  upon  various  parts  of  tlie 
coasts  of  Peloponnesus,- and  ravaging  the  territory  of  .Megara. 

Such  were  the  results  of  the  first  campaign.  From  the  method 
in  whicli  the  war  was  conducted  it  had  become  pretty  evident  that 
it  would  prove  of  long  duration  ;  and  the  Athenians  now  proceed- 
ed to  i)rovide  for  this  contingency.  It  was  agreed  that  a  reserve 
fund  of  1000  talents  should  be  set  apart,  whicli  was  not  to  be 
touched  in  any  other  case  than  an  attack  upon  Athens  by  sea. 
Any  citizen  who  proposed  to  make  a  dilFerent  use  of  the  fund  in- 
curred thercl)y  the  juinishment  of  death.  Vrith  the  same  view  it 
was  resolved  to  reserve  every  year  100  of  their  best  triremes,  fully 
manned  and  equipped. 

Towards  the  winter  Pericles  delivered,  from  a  lofty  platform 
erected  in  the  Ceramicus,  the  funeral  oration  of  those  who  had 
fallen  in  tlie  war.  This  sjiecch,  or,  at  all  events,  the  substance  of 
ir,  has  been  preserved  by  Tliucydidcs,  wlio  may  possibly  have  heard 
it  pronounced.  It  is  a  valuable  monument  of  eloquence  and  pa- 
triotism, and  particularly  interesting  for  the  sketch  which  it  con- 
tains of  the  Athenian  manners  as  well  as  of  the  Athenian  consti- 
tution. 
i^t>  In  the  following  year  (n.c.  430)  the  Peloponncsians,  under  Ar- 
chidamus, renewed  their  invasion  of  Attica.  At  the  same  time 
the  Athenians  were  attacked  by  a  more  insidious  and  a  more  for- 
midable enemy.  The  plague  broke  out  in  the  crowded  city. 
This  terrible  disorder,  which  was  supposed  to  liave  originated  in 
JEthiuj)ia,  Irid  already  desolated  Asia,  and  many  of  the  countries 
mound  the  INIediterranean.  A  great  proportion  of  those  who  wcro 
seized  perished  in  from  seven  to  nine  days.  It  frequently  attack- 
ed the  mental  faculties,  and  left  even  thoso  who  recovered  from  it 


B.C.  430.     THE  PLAGUE  AT  ATHENS.         101 

so  entirely  deprived  of  memory  that  they  couhl  recognize  neither 
themselves  nor  others.  The  disorder  being  new,  the  physicians 
could  find  no  remedy  in  the  resources  of  their  art.  Despair  now 
began  to  take  possession  of  the  Athenians.  Some  suspected  that 
the  Feloponnesians  had  poisoned  the  v.-ells  ;  others  attributed  the 
pestilence  to  the  anger  of  Apollo.  A  dreadfid  state  of  moral  dis- 
solution followed.  The  sick  -were  seized  with  unconquerable  de- 
spondency ;  whilst  a  great  part  of  the  population  who  had  hith- 
erto escaped  the  disorder,  expecting  soon  to  be  attacked  in  turn, 
abandoned  themselves  to  all  manner  of  excess,  debauchery,  and 
crime.  The  numbers  carried  off  by  the  pestilence  can  hardly  be 
estimated  at  less  than  a  fourth  of  the  whole  population. 

Oppressed  at  once  by  war  and  pestilence,  their  lands  desolated, 
their  homes  filled  with  mourning,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
Athenians  were  seized  with  rage  and  despair,  or  that  they  vented 
their  anger  on  Pericles,  whom  they  deemed  the  author  of  their 
misfortune.  But  that  statesman  still  adhered  to  his  plans  with 
unshaken  firmness.  Though  the  Lacedemonians  were  in  Attica, 
though  the  plague  had  already  seized  on  Athens,  he  was  vigorously 
pushing  his  scheme  of  offensive  operations.  A  foreign  expedition 
might  not  only  divert  the  popular  mind,  but  would  prove  beneficial 
by  relieving  the  crowded  city  of  part  of  its  population ;  and  ac- 
cordingly a  fleet  was  fitted  out,  of  which  Pericles  himself  took  the 
command,  and  wliich  committed  devastations  upon  various  parts 
of  the  Peloponnesian  coast.  But,  upon  returning  from  this  expe- 
dition, Pericles  found  the  public  feeling  more  exasperated  than  be- 
fore. Envoys  had  even  been  despatched  to  Sparta  to  sue  for  peace, 
but  had  been  dismissed  without  a  hearing  ;  a  disappointment  which 
had  rendered  the  populace  still  more  furious.  Pericles  now  found 
it  necessary  to  call  a  i^ubiic  assembly  in  order  to  vindicate  his  con- 
duct, and  to  encourage  the  desponding  citizens  to  persevere.  But, 
though  he  succeeded  in  persuading  them  to  prosecute  the  war  with 
vigour,  they  still  continued  to  nourish  their  feelings  of  hatred 
against  the  great  statesman.  His  political  enemies,  of  whom  Cleon 
was  the  chief,  took  advantage  of  this  state  of  the  public  mind  to 
bring  against  him  a  charge  of  peculation.  The  main  object  of  this 
accusation  was  to  incapacitate  him  for  the  office  of  Strategus,  or 
general.*  He  was  brought  before  the  dicastery  on  this  charge, 
and  sentenced  to  pay  a  considerable  fine  ;  but  eventually  a  strong' 
reaction  occurred  in  his  favour.  He  was  re-elected  general,  and 
apparently  regained  all  the  influence  he  had  ever  possessed. 

*  Tlie  Strategi,  or  Generals,  were  ten  in  number,  elected  annually,  and  vreve 
intnir^tcd  not  only  with  the  command  in  military  expedition?,  but  with  the  su- 
perintendence of  all  warlike  preparations,  and  with  the  regulation  of  all  mattara 
VI  any  way  connected  with  the  wav  department  of  the  state. 


102  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XL 

But  he  was  not  destined  long  to  enjo}'  this  return  of  popularity. 
His  life  was  now  closing  in,  and  its  end  wa«  clouded  by  a  long 
train  of  domestic  misfortunes.  The  epidemic  deprived  him  not 
only  of  many  personal  and  political  friends,  but  also  of  several  near 
relations,  amongst  whom  were  his  sister  and  his  two  legitimate 
sons,  Xanthippus  and  Paralus.  Tlie  death  of  tlie  latter  was  a  se- 
vere blow  to  him.  During  the  funeral  ceremonies,  as  he  placed  a 
garland  on  the  body  of  his  favourite  son,  he  was  completely  OA'cr- 
powered  by  his  feelings  and  wept  aloud.  His  ancient  house  was 
now  left  witliout  an  heir.  By  Aspasia,  however,  he  had  an  ille- 
gitimate son  who  bore  his  own  name,  and  whom  the  Athenians 
now  legitimized,  and  thus  alleviated,  as  far  as  lay  in  their  power,, 
the  misfortunes  of  their  great  leader. 

After  this  period  it  was  with  difficulty  that  Pericles  was  per- 
suaded by  his  friends  to  take  any  active  part  in  jniblic  affairs  ;  nor 
did  he  survive  more  than  a  twelvemonth.  An  attack  of  the  pre- 
vailing epidemic  was  succeeded  by  a  low  and  lingering  fever,  which 
nndermined  both  his  strength  of  body  and  vigour  of  intellect.  As 
Pericles  lay  ai)i)arently  unconscious  on  his  death-bed,  the  friends 
who  stood  around  it  Avcre  engaged  in  recalling  his  exploits.  The 
dying  man  interrupted  them  by  remarking,  "What  you  praise  in 
me  is  partly  the  result  of  good  fortune,  and,  at  all  events,  common 
to  me  Avith  many  otlier  commanders.  What  I  chiefly  pride  my- 
self upon  you  have  not  noticed — no  Athenian  ever  wore  mourning 
through  me." 

The  enormous  influence  which  Pericles  exei'cised  for  so  long  a 
period  OAcr  an  ingenious  but  fickle  people  like  the  Athenians  is 
an  unquestionable  proof  of  his  intellectual  superiority.  This  hold 
on  the  public  atfection  is  to  be  attributed  to  a  great  extent  to  his 
extraordinary  eloquence.  Cicero  regards  him  as  the  first  example 
of  an  almost  perfect  orator,  at  once  delighting  the  Athenians  with 
his  copiousness  and  gi'ace,  and  overawing  them  by  the  force  and 
cogency  of  his  diction  and  arguments.  He  seems,  indeed,  to  hava 
fiingiilarly  combined  tlie  ])Owcr  of  pcrsunsion  with  that  more  rapid 
and  abrupt  style  of  oratory  which  takes  an  audience  by  storm  and 
defies  all  resistance.  As  the  accom]dished  man  of  genius  and  the 
liberal  patron  of  literature  and  art,  Pericles  is  worthy  of  the  high- 
est admiration.  By  the.^e  qualities  he  has  justly  given  name  to 
the  most  brilliant  intellectual  epoch  that  tlic  world  has  ever  seen. 
But  on  tliis  ])oint  we  have  already  touched,  and  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  refer  hereafter  in  the  sketch  of  Grecian  literature. 
,  V^  In  the  third  year  of  the  war  (n.c.  420)  Archidamus  directed  his 
whole  force  against  the  ill-fated  town  of  Plata\a.  The  siege  that 
ensued  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  the  ann.nlsj  of  Grecian 


B.C.  429.  SIEGE  OF  PLATiEA.  103 

warfare.  Platrca  was  but  a  small  city,  and  its  garrison  consisted 
of  only  400  citizens  and  80  Athenians,  togetlier  with  110  women 
to  manage  thciv  household  aflairs.  Yet  this  small  force  set  at  de- 
fiance the  whole  army  of  the  Feloponnesians.  The  latter,  being  re- 
pulsed in  all  their  attemjjts  to  take  the  place  by  storm,  resolved  to 
turn  the  siege  into  a  blockade,  and  reduce  the  city  by  famine.  The 
Platajans  endured  a  blockade  of  two  years,  during  which  the  Athe- 
nians attempted  nothing  for  their  relief.  In  the  second  year,  how- 
ever, about  half  the  garrison  effected  their  escape ;  but  the  rest 
wore  obliged  to  surrender  shortly  afterwards  (n.c.  427).  The  whole 
garrison,  consisting  of  200  Platieans  ami  25  Athenians,  were  now 
'arraigned  before  five  judges  sent  from  Sparta.  Their  indictment 
was  framed  in  a  way  which  precluded  the  possibility  of  escape. 
They  were  simply  asked  "Whether,  during  the  present  war,  they 
had  rendered  any  assistance  to  the  Lacedemonians  and  their  al' 
lies?"  Each  man  was  called  up  separately  before  the  judgment- 
seat,  and  the  same  question  having  been  put  to  him,  and,  of  course, 
answered  in  the  negative,  he  was  immediately  led  away  to  execu- 
tion. The  town  of  Plataa  was  transferred  to  the  Thebans,  who, 
a  few  months  afterwards,  levelled  all  the  private  buildings  to  the 
ground.  Thus  was  Plataea  blotted  out  from  the  map  of  Greece  uji'T' 
(B.C.  427).  In  recording  the  fall  of  Plata3a  we  have  anticipated 
the  order  of  chronology. 

Tne  most  important  event  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  war(B.c  Ji^^ 
428)  was  the  revolt  of  Mytilene,  the  capital  of  Lesbos,  and  of  the 
greater  part  of  that  island.  The  Athenians  sent  out  a  fleet  which 
blockaded  Mytilene  both  by  sea  and  land.  The  Peloponnesians 
promised  their  assistance  ;  but,  from  various  causes,  their  fleet  was 
unable  to  reach  the  place.  Meanwhile  the  provisions  of  the  town 
were  exhausted,  and  it  was  therefore  resolved,  as  a  last  desperate 
expedient,  to  make  a  sally,  and  endeavour  to  raise  the  blockade. 
With  this  view  even  the  men  of  the  lower  classes  were  armed  with 
the  full  armour  of  the  hoplites.  But  this  step  produced  a  very  dif- 
ferent result  from  what  had  been  expected  or  intended.  The  great 
mass  of  the  Mytileneans  regarded  their  own  oligarchical  govern- 
ment with  suspicion,  and  now  threatened  that,  unless  tlieir  de- 
mands were  complied  with,  they  would  surrender  the  city  to  the 
Athenians.  In  this  des])erate  emergency  the  Mytilenean  govern- 
ment perceived  that  their  only  chance  of  safety  lay  in  anticipating 
the  people  in  this  step.  They  accordingly  opened  a  negotiation 
M'ith  Paches,  the  Athenian  commander,  and  a  ca])itulation  was 
agreed  upon  by  which  the  city  was  to  be  surrendered,  and  the  fate 
of  its  inhabitants  to  be  decided  by  ilie  Athenian  Assembly. 

At  Athens  the  disposal  of  the  prisoners  caused  great  debate.    I* 


104  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XI. 

was  on  this  occasion  that  the  leather-seller  Clcon  first  comes  prom< 
inently  fonvard  in  Athenian  .aihiirs.  Jf  we  may  trust  tlie  jtictiire 
drawn  by  tlic  comic  i)oet  Aristoi)liancs,  Cleon  was  a  perfect  model 
of  a  low-born  demagogue  ;  a  noisy  brawler,  insolent  in  his  gestures, 
corrupt  and  venal  in  liis  princijiles.  INIuch  allowance  must  no  doubt 
be  made  for  comic  license  and  exaggeration  in  this  portrait,  but 
even  a  caricature  must  have  some  grounds  of  truth  for  its  basis. 
It  was  this  man  who  took  the  lead  in  the  debate  respecting  tlia 
disposal  of  the  Mytileneans,  and  made  the  savage  and  liorrible  pro- 
posal to  put  to  death  the  ichole  male  population  of  Mytilenc  of 
military  age,  and  to  sell  the  women  and  children  into  slaA'cry. 
This  motion  he  succeeded  in  carrying,  and  a  trireme  was  imme- 
diately despatched  to  Mytilene,  conveying  orders  to  Paelics  to 
carry  the  bloody  decree  into  execution.  This  barbarous  decree 
made  no  discrimination  between  the  innocent  and  the  guilty ;  and 
on  the  morrow  so  general  a  feeling  prevailed  of  the  horrible  in- 
justice tliat  had  been  committed,  that  the  magistrates  acceded  to 
the  i)rayer  of  the  Mytilcnean  envo3's  and  called  a  fresh  assembly. 
Notwithstanding  the  violent  opposition  of  Cleon,  the  majority  of 
the  assembly  reversed  their  former  decree,  and  resolved  that  the 
Mytileneans  already  in  custody  should  be  put  upon  their  trial,  but 
that  tlie  remainder  of  the  population  should  be  spared.  A  sec- 
ond trireme  was  immediately  des])atched  to  ]\lytilenc,  with  orders 
to  Paches  to  arrest  the  execution.  The  utmost  diligence  was  need- 
ful. Tlie  former  trireme  had  a  start  of  four-and-twenty  hours, 
and  nothing  but  exertions  almost  superhuman  would  enable  the 
second  to  reacli  Mytilene  early  enougli  to  avert  the  tragical  catas- 
trophe. The  oarsmen  were  allowed  bv  turns  only  short  intervals 
of  rest,  and  took  their  food,  consisting  of  barley-meal  steeped  in 
wine  and  oil,  as  they  sat  at  the  oar.  llai)])ily  the  weather  proved 
favourable  ;  and  the  crew,  wlio  had  been  jiromiscd  large  rewards 
in  case  they  arrived  in  time,  exerted  themselves  to  deliver  the  re- 
prieve, whilst  the  crew  of  tlie  preceding  vessel  had  conveyed  the 
order  for  execution  with  slowness  and  reluctance.  Yet  even  so 
the  countermand  came  only  just  in  time.  The  mandate  avus  al- 
ready in  the  hands  of  Paches,  wlio  was  taking  measures  for  its 
execution.  Tlui  fortifications  of  Mytilene  were  razed,  and  her 
fleet  delivered  up  to  the  Athenians. 
i^y  The  fate  of  the  Platjcans  and  INlytileneans  affords  a  fearful  illus- 
»  tration  of  the  manners  of  the  age  ;  but  these  horrors  soon  found  a 
])arallel  in  Corcyra.  A  fearful  struggle  took  place  in  this  island 
between  the  aristocratical  and  ileniociaiical  parties.  The  peojilc 
at  length  obtained  the  nnistcry,  and  the  vengeance  which  they 
took  on  their  opponents  was  fearful.    The  most  sacred  sanctuarie* 


B.C.  428. 


CONQUEST  OF  MYTILENE. 


105 


alForded  no  protection  ;  the  nearest  ties  of  blood  and  kindred  were 
sacrificed  to  civil  hatred.  In  one  case  a  father  slew  even  his  own 
son.  These  scenes  of  horror  lasted  for  seven  days,  during  which 
death  in  every  conceivable  form  was  busily  at  work. 

The  seventh  year  of  the  war  (b.c.  425)  Avas  marked  by  an  im-t|  x^y 
portant  event.     An  Athenian  fleet  was  detained  by  bad  weather 
at  Pylus  in  Messenia,  on  the  modern  Bay  of  Navavino.     Deraoss- 


Buy  of  Pylus. 

£..  Island  of  Spbacteria.     B.  Pylus.     C.  The  modern  Navariiio.     D  D.  Day  of  Pyllfc 

E.  Promontory  of  Coryphasiuin. 

thenes,  an  active  Atlienian  officer,  wlio  was  on  board  the  fleet, 
thought  it  an  eligible  spot  on  which  to  establish  some  of  the  Mes- 
Bsnians  from  Naupactus,  since  it  was  a  strong  position,  from  which 
they  might  annoy  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  excite  revolt  among 
their  Ilelot  kinsmen.  As  the  bad  Aveather  continued  for  some 
time,  the  soldiers  on  board  amused  themselves,  under  the  direo- 


iOG  HISTORY  OF  GiyiECE.  Chap.  XI 

tions  of  Demosthenes,  in  constmctinfc  a  sort  of  rude  fortification. 
The  nature  of  the  j^round  was  favourable  for  the  work,  and  in  iivo 
or  six  days  a  wall  was  thrown  up  sulhcient  for  the  purposes  of  de- 
fence. Demosthenes  imdcrtook  to  garrison  the  place;  and  five 
ships  and  200  hoplites  Avere  left  behind  with  him. 

This  insult  to  the  Lacedaemonian  territory  caused  great  alarm 
and  indignation  at  Sparta.  The  rdoponnesian  fleet  was  ordered 
to  Pylus ;  and  tlie  Lacedicmonian  commander,  on  arriving  with 
the  fleet,  immediately  occupied  the  small  uninhabited  and  densely 
wooded  island  of  Sphacteria,  which,  with  the  exception  of  two 
narrow  channels  on  the  north  and  south,  almost  blocked  uj*  the 
entrance  of  the  biiy.  Between  the  island  and  the  main  land  was 
a  spacious  basin,  in  which  the  fleet  took  iip  its  station.  The  Lace- 
d:vmonians  lost  no  time  in  attacking  the  fortress;  but,  notwith- 
standing their  repeated  attempts,  they  were  unable  to  effect  a  land- 
ing. 

Whilst  they  were  preparing  far  another  assault,  they  were  sur- 
prised by  the  appearance  of  the  Athenian  fleet.  They  had  strange- 
ly neglected  to  secure  the  entrances  into  the  bay;  and,  when  the 
Athenian  ships  came  sailing  through  both  the  undefended  chan- 
nels, many  of  their  ti'iremes  were  still  moored,  and  part  of  their 
crews  ashore.  The  battle  which  ensued  was  despernte.  Both 
sides  fouglit  with  extraordinary  valour  ;  but  victory  at  length  de- 
clared for  the  Athenians.  Five  Peloponncsian  ships  were  cap- 
tured ;  the  rest  were  saved  only  by  running  them  ashore,  whero 
they  were  protected  by  the  Lacedaemonian  army. 

Tlie  Athenians,  thus  masters  of  the  sea,  were  enabled  to  blocks 
ade  the  island  of  Sphacteria,  in  whicli  the  flower  of  the  Lacedae- 
monian army  was  shut  up,  many  of  them  native  Spartans  of  the 
highest  families.  In  so  grave  an  emergency  messengers  were  sent 
to  S])arta  for  advice.  The  Ej)hors  themselves  immediately  re- 
paired to  the  spot ;  and  so  desponding  was  their  view  of  the  mat- 
ter, that  they  saw  no  issue  from  it  but  a  i)cace.  They  therefore 
proposed  and  obtained  an  armistice  for  the  purpose  of  o])ening  ne- 
gotiations at  Athens.  But  the  Athenians,  at  the  instigation  of 
Clcon,  insisted  upon  the  most  extravagant  demands,  and  hostili- 
ties were  accordingly  resumed.  They  were  not,  however,  attend- 
ed with  any  decisive  result.  The  blockade  of  Si)hactcria  began  to 
grow  tedious  and  harassing.  The  force  upon  it  continually  re- 
ceived sui)plics  of  ])rovisions  cither  from  swimmers,  who  towed 
skins  fllh'd  with  linseed  and  po]i])v-secd  mixed  with  honey,  or 
from  Helots,  who,  induced  by  the  jaoniise  of  large  rewanls,  eluded 
the  blockading  squadron  during  the  dark  and  stormy  nights,  and 
landed  cargoes  on  the  back  of  the  island.     The  summer,  more 


B.C.  425.  BLOCKADE  OF  SPIIACTERIA.  10^ 

over,  was  fast  ^yearing  away,  and  the  storms  of  winter  oight  prob- 
ably necessitate  tlio  ruisinj^  of  tlie  blockade  altogether.  Undet 
these  circumstances,  Demosthenes  began  to  contemplate  a  descent 
upon  the  island  ;  with  which  view  he  sent  a  message  to  Athens  to 
explain  the  unfavourable  state  of  the  blockade,  and  to  request 
furtlier  assistance. 

These  tidings  were  very  distasteful  to  the  Athenians,  who  had 
looked  upon  Sphacteria  as  their  certain  prey.  They  began  to  rcr 
gret  having  let  slip  the  favourable  opportunity  for  making  a  peace, 
and  to  vent  their  displeasure  upon  Cleon,  the  director  of  their 
conduct  on  that  occasion.  But  Cleon  put  on  a  face  of  brass.  He 
abused  the  Strategi.  His  political  opponent,  Nicias,  was  then  one 
of  those  officers,  a  man  of  quiet  disposition  and  moderate  abilities, 
but  thoroughly  honest  and  incorruptible.  Him  Cleon  now  singled 
out  for  his  vituperation,  and,  pointing  at  him  with  his  finger,  ex- 
claimed, "It  would  be  easy  enough  to  take  the  island  if  our  gen- 
erals were  men.  If /were  general,  I  would  do  it  at  once  !"  This 
burst  of  the  tanner  made  the  assembly  laugh.  He  was  saluted 
with  cries  of  "Why  don't  you  go,  then?"  and  Nicias,  thinking 
probably  to  catch  his  opponent  in  his  own  trap,  seconded  the  voice 
of  the  assembly  by  offering  to  place  at  his  disposal  whatever  force 
he  might  deem  necessary  for  the  enterprise.  Cleon  at  first  en- 
deavoured to  avoid  the  dangerous  honour  thus  thrust  upon  him. 
But  the  more  he  drew  back  the  louder  were  the  assemblv  in  call- 
ing  upon  him  to  accept  the  office  ;  and  as  Nicias  seriously  repeat- 
ed his  proposition,  he  adopted  with  a  good  grace  Avhat  there  was 
no  longer  any  possibility  of  evading,  and  asserted  that  he  would 
take  Sphacteria  within  twenty  days,  and  either  kill  all  the  Lace- 
demonians upon  it,  or  bring  them  prisoners  to  Athens. 

Never  did -general  set  out  upon  an  enterprise  under  circum- 
stances more  singular ;  but,  what  was  still  more  extraordinary, 
fortune  enabled  him  to  make  his  promise  good.  In  fact,  as  we 
have  seen,  Demosthenes  had  already  resolved  on  attacking  the  isl- 
and ;  and  when  Cleon  arrived  at  Pylus  he  found  everything  pre- 
pared for  the  assault.  Accident  fiivoured  the  enterprise.  A  fire 
kindled  by  some  Athenian  sailors,  who  had  landed  for  the  purpose 
of  cooking  their  dinner,  caught  and  destroyed  the  woods  with 
which  the  island  was  overgrown,  and  thus"  deprived  the  Lacedae- 
monians of  one  of  their  principal  defences.  Nevertheless,  such 
was  the  awe  inspired  by  the  reputation  of  the  Spartan  arms,  that 
Demosthenes  considered  it  necessary  to  land  about  10,000  soldiers 
of  different  descriptions,  although  the  Lacedaimonian  force  con- 
sisted of  only  about  420  men.  But  this  small  force  for  a  long 
while  kept  their  assailants  at  bay;  till  some  Messenians,  stealing 


-I 


108  HISTORY  OF  GKEECE.  Chap.  XI. 

round  by  tho  sea-shore,  over  crags  and  clifts  which  the  Lnccdae- 
nioniaiis  had  deemed  impracticable,  suddenly  appeared  on  the  high 
ground  which  overhung  their  rear.  Tliey  now  began  to  give  way, 
and  would  soon  have  been  all  slain  ;  but  Clcon  and  Demosthenes, 
being  anxious  to  carry  them  prisoners  to  Athens,  sent  a  herald  to 
summon  them  to  surrender.  The  latter,  in  token  of  compliance, 
dropped  their  shields,  and  waved  their  hands  above  their  heads. 
They  requested,  however,  permission  to  communicate  with  their 
countrymen  on  the  main  land ;  who,  after  two  or  three  communi- 
cations, sent  them  a  final  message — "to  take  counsel  for  them- 
selves, but  to  do  nothing  disgraceful."  The  survivors  then  sur- 
rendered. They  were  2i)2  in  number,  120  of  whom  were  native 
Spartans  belonging  to  the  first  families.  By  this  surrender  the 
prestige  of  the  Spartan  arms  was  in  a  great  degree  destroyed. 
The  Spartans  were  not,  indeed,  deemed  invincible  ;  but  their  pre- 
vious tbats,  especially  at  Thermopylae,  had  inspired  the  notion  that 
they  would  rather  die  tlian  yield — an  opinion  which  could  now  no 
longer  be  entertained. 

Cleon  had  thus  performed  his  promise.  On  the  day  after  the 
victory  he  and  Demosthenes  started  Avith  tlie  prisoners  for  Athens, 
where  they  arrived  within  20  days  from  the  time  of  Cleon's  de- 
parture. Altogether,  the  alfair  was  one  of  the  most  fiivourable  for 
the  Athenians  that  had  occurred  during  the  war.  The  prisoners 
would  serve  not  only  for  a  guarantee  against  future  invasions, 
which  might  be  averted  by  threatening  to  put  them  to  death,  but 
also  as  a  means  for  extorting  advantageous  conditions  whenever 
a  peace  should  be  concluded.  Nay,  the  victory  itself  was  of  con- 
siderable importance,  since  it  enabled  the  Atlienians  to  place  Ty- 
lus  in  a  better  posture  of  defence,  and,  by  garrisoning  it  with  Mcs- 
senians  from  Naupactus,  to  create  a  strongliokl  whence  Laconia 
might  be  oveiTun  and  ravaged  at  i)leasure.  The  Laceda;moniaus 
themselves  were  so  sensible  of  these  things,  that  they  sent  repeat- 
ed messages  to  Athens  to  jiroijose  a  peace,  but  which  the  Athe- 
nians altogether  disregarded. 

The  eightli  year  of  the  war  (u.c.  424)  opened  witli  brilliant  pros- 
pects for  the  Atlienians.  Elate  with  their  continued  good  fortune, 
they  aimed  at  nothing  less  tlian  the  recovery  of  all  the  posses- 
sions which  they  had  lield  before  tlie  Thirty  Years'  Truce.  For 
this  purpose  tliey  iilauned  an  expedition  against  Bieotia.  But 
tlieir  good  fortune  had  now  reached  its  culminating  i)oint.  They 
were  defeated  by  the  J5<cotians  with  great  loss  at  the  battle  of  De- 
lium,  whiclx  was  the  greatest  and  most  decisive  engagement  fought 
during  the  first  period  of  the  war.  An  interesting  feature  of  the 
battle  is  that  both  Socrates  and  his  pupil  Alcibiades  were  engaged 


B.C.  424.  BATTLE  01^^  DELIUil.  103 

in  it,  the  former  among  the  lioplites,  the  latter  in  the  cavalry. 
Socrates  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery,  and  was  one   of 
those  who,  instead  of  throwing  down  their  arms,  kept  together  in 
a  compact  body,  and  repulsed  the  attacks  of  the  pursuing  horse.  - 
His  retreat  was  also  protected  by  Alcibiades. 

This  disastrous  battle  was  speedily  followed  by  the  overthrow  of 
tlie  Athenian  empire  in  Thrace.  At  the  request  of  Perdiccas,  king 
of  Macedonia,  and  of  the  Chalcidian  towns,  Avho  had  sued  for  help 
against  the  Athenians,  Brasidas  was  sent  by  the  Lacedasmonian 
government  into  Macedonia,  at  tlie  head  of  a  small  body  of  troops. 
On  his  arrival  in  ]Macedonia  he  proclaimed  that  he  was  come  to 
deliver  the  Grecian  cities  from  the  tyrannous  yoke  of  Athens.  His 
bravery,  his  kind  and  conciliating  demeanour,  his  probity,  moder- 
ation, and  good  faith,  soon  gained  him  the  respect  and  love  of  the 
allies  of  Athens  in  that  quarter.  Acanthus  and  Stagirus  hastened 
to  open  their  gates  to  him ;  and  early  in  the  ensuing  winter,  by 
means  of  forced  marches,  he  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  appeared 
before  the  important  Athenian  colony  of  Amphipolis  on  the  Stry- 
mon.  In  that  town  the  Athenian  party  sent  a  message  for  assist- 
ance to  Thucydides,  the  historian,  wiio  was  then  general  in  those 
parts.  Thucydides  hastened  with  seven  ships  from  Thasos,  and 
succeeded  in  securing  Eion  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon ;  but 
Amphipolis,  which  lay  a  little  higher  up  the  river,  allured  by  the 
favourable  terms  ofiered,  had  already  surrendered  to  Brasidas. 
For  his  want  of  vigilance  on  this  occasion,  Thucydides  was,  on  the 
motion,  of  Cleon,  sentenced  to  banishment,  and  spent  the  follow- 
ing twenty  years  of  his  life  in  exile.  Torone,  Scione,  and  other 
towns  also  revolted  from  Athens. 

In  the  following  year  (b.c.  422)  Cleon  was  sent  to  Macedonia 
to  recover  the  Athenian  de])endencies,  and  especially  Amphipolis. 
He  encamped  on  a  rising  ground  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  town. 
Having  deserted  the  peaceful  art  of  dressing  hides  for  the  more 
hazardous  trade  of  war,  in  which  he  was  almost  totally  inexperi- 
enced, and  having  now  no  Demosthenes  to  direct  his  movements, 
Cleon  was  thrown  completely  otf  his  guard  by  a  ver}'-  ordinaiy 
stratagem  on  the  part  of  Brasidas,  who  contrived  to  give  the  town 
quite  a  deserted  and  peaceful  appearance.  Cleon  suffered  his 
troops  to  fall  into  disorder,  till  he  was  suddenly  surprised  by  the 
astounding  news  that  Brasidas  was  preparing  for  a  sally.  Cleon 
at  once  resolved  to  retreat.  But  his  skill  was  equal  to  his  valour. 
He  conducted  his  retreat  in  the  most  disorderly  manner.  His  left 
wing  had  already  filed  off,  and  his  centre,  with  straggling  ranks, 
was  in  the  act  of  follov.'ing,  when  Brasidas  ordered  the  gates  of  the 
town  to  be  flung  open,  and,  rushing  out  at  the  head  of  only  150 


no  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XL 

chosen  soldiers,  chavgeJ  the  retreating  cohimns  in  flank.  Thet 
were  immediately  routed ;  but  Brasidas  received  a  mortal  wound, 
and  was  carried  off  the  field.  Though  his  men  were  forming  on 
the  hill,  Cleon  fled  as  f.ist  as  lie  could  on  tlie  approach  of  the  en* 
cmy,  but  was  pursued  and  slain  by  a  Thracian  peltast.  In  spite, 
however,  of  the  disgraceful  fliglit  of  their  general,  the  right  wing 
maintained  their  ground  for  a  considerable  time,  till  some  cavalry 
and  peltasts  issuing  from  Amphipolis  attacked  them  in  flank  and 
rear,  and  compelled  them  to  ily.  On  assembling  again  at  Eion  it 
was  found  tliat  half  the  Athenian  liojjlites  had  been  slain.  Brasidas 
was  carried  into  Amphi])olis,  and  lived  long  enough  to  receive  the 
tidings  of  his  victory.  He  was  interred  within  the  walls  with  great 
military  pomp,  in  the  centre  of  what  thenceforth  became  the  chief 
agora ;  he  was  proclaimed  oecist,  or  founder  of  the  town  ;  and  was 
worshipped  as  a  hero  with  annual  games  and  sacrifices. 

By  the  death  of  Brasidas  and  Cleon  tlie  two  chief  obstacles  to  a 
peace  were  removed ;  for  the  former  loved  war  for  the  sake  of  its  glo- 
ry, the  latter  for  the  handle  which  it  afforded  for  agitation  and  for 
attacking  his  political  opponents.  The  Atlienian  Nicias,  and  the 
Spartan  king  l*leistoanax,  zealously  forwarded  the  negotiations, 
and  in  the  spring  of  the  year  B.C.  421  a  peace  for  50  years,  com- 
monly called  the  Peace  of  Nicias,  was  concluded  on  the  basis  of 
a  mutual  restitution  of  prisoners  and  places  captured  during  the 
war. 


Vie^v  of  the  Fort  Euryulus  at  Synvcu^o. 


CIIAl'TER  XII. 

THE    TELOPONNESIAN   WAR.  SECOND    PERIOD,    PROM    THE    PEACE 

OF   NICIAS   TO   THE  DEFEAT   OF  THE  ATHENIANS  IN    SICILY,  B.C. 

421-413. 

Several  of  the  allies  of  Spavta  were  dissatisfied  -with  the  peace 
which  she  had  concluded  ;  and  soon  afterwards  some  of  them  de- 
termined to  revive  the  ancient  pretensions  of  Argos,  and  to  make 
her  the  head  of  a  new  confederacy,  which  should  include  all  Greece, 
with  the  exception  of  Sparta  and  Athens.  The  movement  was 
begun  by  the  Corinthians,  and  the  league  was  soon  joined  by  the 
Eleans,  the  Mantineans,  and  the  Chalcidians. 

Between  Sparta  and  Athens  themselves  matters  v/ere  far  from 
being  on  a  satisfactory  footing.  Sparta  confessed  her  inability  to 
coifipel  the  Boeotians  and  Corinthians  to  accede  to  the  peace,  or 
even  to  restore  tlie  town  of  Amphipolis.  Athens  consequently 
refused  to  evacuate  Tylus,  though  she  removed  the  Helots  and 
Messenians  from  it.  In  the  negotiations  which  ensued  respecting 
the  surrender  of  Pylus,  Alcibiades  took  a  prominent  part.  Thig 
extraordinary  man  had  already  obtained  immense  influence  at 
Athens.  Young,  rich,  handsome,  profligate,  and  clever,  Alcibia- 
des was  the  very  model  of  an  Athenian  man  of  fashion.  In  lin- 
eage he  was  a  striking  contrast  to  the  plebeian  orators  of  the  day. 
He  traced  his  paternal  descent  fi'om  Ajax,  whilst  on  his  mother's 
side  he  claimed  relationship  Avith  tlie  Alcmaionida),  and  conse- 
quently with  Pericles.     On  the  death  of  his  father  Clinias,  Per- 


112  IIISTOllY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XII. 

icles  had  become  his  guardian.  From  early  youth  the  conduct 
of  Alcibiadcs  was  marked  ])y  violence,  recklessness,  and  vanity. 
He  delij^hted  in  astonishir.<;  the  more  sol)er  portion  of  the  citizens 
by  his  capricious  and  extravaj^ant  feats.  He  was  utterly  destitute 
of  morality,  wliether  public  or  private.  But  his  vices  were  partly 
redeemed  by  some  brilliant  qualities.  He  possessed  both  boldness 
of  design  and  vigour  of  action  ;  and,  though  scarcely  more  than 
thirty  at  the  time  of  which  we  are  now  sjieaking,  he  had  already 
on  several  occasions  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery.  His 
more  serious  studies  were  made  subservient  to  the  purposes  cf  his 
ambition,  for  wliich  some  skill  as  an  orator  was  necessary.  In 
order  to  attain  it,  he  frequented  the  schools  of  the  sophists,  and 
exercised  himself  in  the  dialectics  of  Prodicus,  Protagoras,  and, 
jtbove  all,  of  Socrates. 

Such  was  the  man  who  now  opposed  the  application  of  th« 
Lacedaimonian  ambassadors.  Their  reception  had  been  so  favour- 
able, that  Alcibiades,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  their  success,  le- 
sorted  to  a  trick  in  order  to  defeat  it.  He  called  upon  the  Lacc- 
diXimonian  envoys,  one  of  whom  happened  to  be  his  personal  friend; 
and  he  advised  them  not  to  tell  the  Assembly  that  they  were  fur- 
nislied  with  full  powers,  as  in  that  case  the  people  would  bully 
them  into  extravagant  concessions,  but  rather  to  say  that  they 
were  merely  come  to  discuss  and  report.  lie  promised,  if  they 
did  so,  to  s])eak  in  their  favour,  and  induce  the  Assembly  to  grant 
the  restitution  of  Pylus,  to  which  he  himself  had  hitherto  been 
the  chief  obstacle.  Accordingly,  on  the  next  day,  when  the  am- 
bassadors were  introduced  into  the  Assembly,  Alcibiades,  assuming 
his  blandest  tone  and  most  winning  smile,  asked  them  on  what 
footing  they  came,  and  what  were  their  powers.  In  re])ly  to  these 
questions,  the  ambassadors,  who  only  a  day  or  two  before  had  told 
Nicias  and  the  Senate  that  they  were  come  as  plenipotentiaries, 
now  publicly  declared,  in  the  face  of  the  Assembly,  that  they  were 
not  authorized  to  conclude,  but  only  to  negotiate  and  discuss.  At 
this  announcement,  those  who  had  heard  their  previous  declara- 
tion could  scarcely  believe  their  ears.  A  universal  burst  of  indig- 
nation broke  forth  at  this  exlubition  of  Spartan  duplicity;  whilsr, 
to  wind  up  the  scene,  Alcibiades,  ailocting  to  be  more  surprised  than 
any,  distinguished  himself  by  being  the  loudest  and  bitterest  in  his 
invectives  against  the  perfidy  of  the  Lacedicmonians. 

Sliortly  afterwards  Alcibiades  ])rocured  the  completion  of  a 
treaty  of  alliance  for  100  years  with  Argos,  Elis,  and  Mantinca 
(u.c.  -ILM)).  'J'luis  were  the  Orccian  slates  involved  in  a  com- 
plicity of  separate  and  often  apparently  opposite  alliances.  It  was 
evident  that  allies  so  heterogeneous  could  not  long  hohl  together,' 
nevertheless,  nominally  at  least,  peace  was  at  first  observed. 


B.C.  416.  CAPTURE  OF  MELOS.  113 

In  the  July  which  followed  the  treaty  with  Argos,  the  Olympic 
games,  which  recurred  every  fourth  year,  were  to  be  celebrated. 
The  Athenians  had  been  shut  out  by  the  war  from  the  two  previ- 
ous celebrations  ;  and  curiosity  was  excited  throughout  Greece  to 
see  what  figure  Athens  would  make  at  this  great  ran-Hellenic 
festival.  War,  it  was  surmised,  mnst  have  exhausted  her  re- 
sources, and  would  thus  prevent  her  from  appearing  Mith  becom- 
ing splendour.  But  from  this  reproach  she  was  rescued  by  the 
wealth  and  vanity,  if  not  by  the  pa,triotism,  of  Alcibiades.  By  his 
care,  the  Athenian  deputies  exhibited  the  richest  display  of  gold- 
en ewers,  censers,  and  other  plate  to  be  used  in  the  public  sacri- 
fice and  procession ;  whilst  for  the  games  he  entered  in  his  own 
name  no  fewer  than  the  unheard-of  number  of  seven  four-horsed 
chariots,  of  which  one  gained  the  first,  and  another  the  second 
prize.  Alcibiades  was  consequently  twice  crowned  with  the  olive, 
and  twice  proclaimed  victor  by  the  herald. 

The  growing  ambition  and  success  of  Alcibiades  prompted  him 
to  carry  his  schemes  against  Sparta  into  the  very  heart  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, without,  hoAvever,  openly  violating  the  peace. 

The  Lacedaemonians  now  found  it  necessary  to  act  with  more 
vigour;  and  accordingly,  in  B.C.  418,  they  assembled  a  very  large 
army,  under  the  command  of  the  Spartan  king,  Agis.  A  decisive 
battle  was  fought  near  Mantinea,  in  which  Agis  gained  a  brilliant 
victory  over  the  Argives  and  their  allies.  This  battle  and  that 
of  Delium  were  the  two  most  important  engagements  that  had  yet 
been  fought  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Although  the  Athenians 
had  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Argives  at  Mantinea,  the  peace  be- 
tween Sparta  and  Athens  continued  to  be  nominally  observed. 

In  B.C.  410  the  Athenians  attacked  and  conquered  Melos,  which 
island  and  Thera  were  the  onl}-  islands  in  the  ^gcan  not  sulycct 
to  the  Athenian  supremacy.  The  Melians  having  rejected  all  the 
Athenian  overtures  for  a  voluntary  submission,  their  capital  was 
blockaded  by  sea  and  land,  and  after  a  siege  of  some  months  sur- 
rendered. On  the  proposal,  as  it  appears,  of  Alcibiades,  all  the 
adult  males  were  put  to  death,  the  women  and  children  sold  into 
slavery,  and  the  island  colonized  afresh  by  500  Athenians.  This 
horrible  proceeding  was  the  more  indefensible,  as  the  Athenians, 
having  attacked  the  Melians  in  full  peace,  could  not  pretend  that 
they  were  justified  by  the  custom  of  war  in  slaying  the  prisoners. 
It  was  the  crowning  act  of  insolence  and  cruelty  displayed  during 
their  empire,  which  from  this  period  began  rapidly  to  decline. 

The  event  destined  to  produce  that  catastrophe — the  interven- 
tion of  the  Athenians  in  the  affairs  of  Sicily — was  already  in  prog- 
ress.    A  quarrel  had  broken  out  between  Egcsta  and  Selinus,  both 

H 


114       •  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XII. 

wliich  cities  were  seated  near  the  western  extremity  of  Sicily  ;  and 
Selinus,  having  obtained  the  aid  of  Syracuse,  was  pressing  very 
hard  upon  the  Egestajans.  Tlie  latter  appealed  to  the  interests 
of  the  Atlienians  rather  than  to  their  sympathies.  They  repre- 
sented how  great  a  blow  it  would  be  to  Athens  if  the  Dorians  be- 
came predominant  in  Sicily,  and  joined  the  Peloi)onncsian  con- 
federacy ;  and  they  undertook,  if  the  Athenians  would  send  an 
aiTnament  to  their  assistance,  to  ])rovide  the  necessary  funds  for 
the  prosecution  of  the  war.  Their  most  powerful  advocate  was 
Alcibiades,  whoso  ambitious  views  ai'c  said  to  have  extended  even 
to  the  conquest  of  Carthage.  The  quieter  and  more  prudent  Nic- 
ias  and  his  party  threw  their  weight  into  the  opposite  scale.  But 
the  Athenian  assembly,  dazzled  by  the  idea  of  so  splendid  an  en- 
terprise, decided  on  despatching  a  large  fleet  under  I^icias,  Alci- 
biades, and  Lamachus,  witli  the  design  of  assisting  Egesta,  and  of 
establishing  the  influence  of  Athens  throughout  Sicily,  by  what- 
ever means  might  be  found  practicable. 

For  the  next  three  months  tlie  preparations  for  the  undertak- 
ing were  pressed  on  witli  the  greatest  ardour.  Young  and  old, 
ric'.i  and  poor,  all  vied  with  one  another  to  obtain  a  share  in  the 
expedition.  Five  years  of  comparative  peace  had  accumulated 
a  fresli  supply  both  of  men  and  money,  and  the  merchants  of 
Athens  embarked  in  the  enterprise  as  in  a  trading  expedition.  It 
was  only  a  few  of  the  wisest  heads  that  escaped  the  genei'al  fcA-er 
of  excitement.  Tlic  expedition  was  on  the  ])oint  of  sailing,  when 
a  sudden  and  mysterious  event  converted  all  these  exulting  feel- 
ings into  gloomy  foreboding. 

At  every  door  in  Athens,  at  (he  corners  of  streets,  in  the  market- 
place, before  temples,  gymnasia,  and  other  ])ublic  i»laces,  stood 
llcrraixi,  or  statues  of  the  god  Hermes,  consisting  of  a  bust  of  tliat 
deity  surmounting  a  quadrangular  i)illiir  of  marble  about  the  heiglit 
of  tlie  liuman  figure.  AVlien  the  Athenians  rose  one  morning  to- 
wards the  end  of  jNIay,  415  n.c,  it  was  found  that  all  these  figures 
(lad  been  mutilated  during  the  night,  and  rcducetl  by  unknown 
hands  t(j  a  shai)clcss  mass.  Tiic  act  inspired  political  as  well  as 
religious  alarm.  It  seemed  to  indicate  a  widespread  consj»iracy, 
for  so  sudden  and  general  a  mutilation  must  have  been  the  work 
of  many  hands.  'J'lio  sacrilege  might  only  be  a  ])reliminary  at- 
tempt of  some  ])owerfnl  citizen  to  seize  the  despotism,  and  suspi- 
cion pointed  its  finger  at  Alcibiades.  Active  measures  were  taken 
and  large  rewards  offered  for  the  discovery  of  tlie  perpetrators. 
A  public  board  was  ai)pointcd  to  examine  witnesses,  which  did 
not,  indeed,  succeed  in  rTu  iting  any  facts  bearing  on  the  actual 
subject  of  inquiry,  but  which  obtained  evidence  respciting  similar 


B.C.  415.     CONDEMNATION  OF  ALCIBIADES.  115 

acts  of  impiety  committed  at  previous  times  in  di-unken  frolics. 
In  these  Alcibiadcs  luinself -was  implicated ;  and  though  the  fieei 
\va?J  on  the  very  eve  of  departure,  a  citizen  rose  in  the  assembly 
and  accused  Alcihiades  of  having  profaned  the  Eleusinian  mys- 
teries by  giving  a  rei)rescntation  of  them  in  a  private  house,  pro- 
ducing in  evidence  the  testimony  of  a  slave.  Alcibiadcs  denied 
the  accusation,  and  implored  the  people  to  have  it  investigated  at 
once.  His  enemies,  however,  had  sufficient  influence  to  get  the 
inquiry  postponed  till  his  return  ;  thus  keeping  the  charge  hang- 
ing over  his  head,  and  gaining  time  to  poison  the  public  mind 
against  him. 

The  Athenian  fleet,  consisting  of  100  triremes,  and  having  on 
board  1500  chosen  Athenian  hoplites,  as  well  as  auxiliaries,  at 
length  set  sail,  and  proceeded  to  Corcyra,  where  it  was  joined  by 
the  otiier  allies  in  the  m.onth  of  July,  415  B.C.  Upon  arriving  at 
llhegium  the  generals  received  the  discouraging  news  that  Egesta 
was  unable  to  contribute  more  than  thirty  talents.  A  council  of 
war  was  now  held  ;  and  it  was  finally  resolved  to  gain  as  many  al- 
lies as  they  could  among  the  Greek  cities  in  Sicily,  and,  having 
thus  ascertained  what  assistance  they  could  rely  upon,  to  attack 
Syracuse  and  Selinus. 

Naxos  joined  the  Athenians,  and  shortly  afterwards  they  ob- 
tained possession  by  surprise  of  the  important  city  of  Catana,  which 
was  now  made  the  head-quarters  of  the  armament.  Here  an  un- 
welcome message  greeted  Alcibiadcs.  After  his  departure  from 
Athens,  Thessalus,  the  son  of  Cimon,  preferred  an  indictment 
against  him  in  consequence  of  his  profanation  of  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries.  The  Salaminian,  or  state  trireme  was  despatched  to 
Sicily,  carrying  the  decree  of  the  assembly  for  Alcibiadcs  to  come 
home  and  take  his  trial.  Tlie  commander  of  the  Salaniinia  was, 
however,  instructed  not  to  seize  his  pci'son,  but  to  allow  him  to 
sail  in  his  own  trireme.  Alcibiadcs  availed  himself  of  this  priv- 
ilege to  effect  his  escape.  AVhcn  the  ships  arrived  at  Thurii,  in 
Italy,  he  absconded,  and  contrived  to  elude  the  search  that  was 
made  after  him.  Nevertheless,  tliougli  absent,  he  was  arraigned 
at  Athens,  and  condemned  to  death  ;  his  property  was  confiscated ; 
and  the  Eumolpidai,  who  presided  over  the  celebration  of  the  Elcti- 
sinian  mysteries,  pronounced  upon  him  the  ciu'ses  of  the  gods.  On 
iiearing  of  his  sentence,  Alcibiadcs  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  ".I 
will  show  them  that  I  am  still  alive." 

Tliree  months  had  now  been  frittered  away  in  Sicily,  during 
which  tl'.e  Athenians  had  done  little  or  nothing,  if  we  excc])t  the 
acquisition  of  Naxos  and  Catana.  Nicias  now  resolved  to  make 
au  attempt  upon  Syracuse.    By  a  false  message  that  the  Catanicans 


116  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Ciiap.XIL 

were  ready  to  assist  in  expellinj];  the  Athenians,  he  induced  the 
Syracusans  to  proceed  thither  in  great  force,  and  he  availed  him- 
self of  their  absence  to  sail  with  his  whole  fleet  into  the  Great  Har- 
bour of  Syracuse,  where  he  landed  near  the  mouth  of  the  Anapus. 
The  Syracusans,  when  they  found  that  they  had  been  deceived  at 
Catana,  marched  back  and  ollbred  Zs'icias  battle  in  his  new  posi- 
tion. The  latter  accepted  it,  and  gained  the  victory  ;  after  which 
he  retired  to  Catana,  and  subsequently  to  Naxos  into  winter  quar- 
ters. 

The  Syracusans  employed  the  winter  in  preparations  for  defence. 
They  also  desi)atched  envoys  to  Corinth  and  Sjjarta  to  solicit  as- 
sistance, in  the  hitter  of  which  towns  they  found  an  nnexpected 
advocate.  Alcibiades,  having  crossed  from  Thurii  to  Cyllenc'  in 
Peloponnesus,  received  a  special  invitation  to  proceed  to  Sjiarta. 
Here  he  revealed  all  tlie  jilans  of  Athens,  and  exhorted  the  Lace- 
daemonians to  frustrate  them.  For  this  pnrpose  he  advised  them 
to  send  an  army  into  Sicily  under  the  command  of  a  Si)artan  gen- 
eral, and,  by  way  of  causing  a  diversion,  to  establish  a  fortified 
post  at  Decelea  in  the  Attic  territory.  The  Spartans  fell  in  with 
these  views,  and  resolved  to  send  a  force  to  the  assistance  of  Syr- 
acuse in  the  spring,  under  the  command  of  Gylii)pus. 

Nicias,  having  received  re-enforcements  from  Athens,  recom 
menced  hostilities  as  soon  as  the  season  allowed  of  it,  and  i-csolved 
on  b'\sicging  Syracuse.  That  town  consisted  of  two  i)arts — tlic 
inner  and  the  outer  city.  The  former  of  these — the  original  set- 
tlement— was  comprised  in  the  island  of  Ortygia*,  the  latter,  after- 
wards known  by  the  name  of  Achradina,  covered  the  high  ground 
of  the  ])eninsuhi  nortli  of  Ortygia,  and  M'as  completely  sci»aratc 
from  the  inner  city.  The  island  of  Ortygia,  to  which  the  modern 
city  is  now  confined,  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  about  two  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, lying  between  the  Great  Harbour  on  the  west  and  the 
Little  Harbour  on  the  cast,  and  separated  from  the  nmin  land  by 
a  narrow  channel.  The  Great  Harbour  is  a  splendid  bay,  about 
five  miles  in  circumference,  and  the  Little  Harbour  v>as  spacious 
enough  to  receive  a  large  iieet  of  ships  of  war.  The  outer  city 
was  surrounded  on  the  north  and  cast  by  the  sea,  and  by  sea-walls 
which  rendered  an  assault  on  that  side  almost  iin[)racticable.  On 
the  land  side  it  was  defended  by  a  wall,  and  partly  also  by  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  which  in  some  ]>arts  was  very  steej).  West 
and  northwest  of  the  wall  of  the  outer  city  stood  two  unfortilied 
suburbs,  which  were,  at  a  later  jjcriod,  included  within  the  walli«of 
Syracuse  under  the  names  of  Tyche  and  Neapolis.  Between  these 
two  suburl)s  tlio  ground  rose  in  a  gentle  acclivity  to  the  summit  of 
the  ranges  of  hills  callvil  Kpii)ola!. 


B.C.  415. 


ATHENIANS  IN  SICILY. 


\V 


It  was  from  the  high  ground  in  Epipolce  that  Syracuse  was  most 
exposed  to  attack.  Nicias  landed  at  Leon,  a  place  upon  the  Bay 
of  Tliapsus,  at  the  distance  of  only  six  or  seven  stadia  from  Epipolce, 


M:ip  of  Syiacuwe. 

took  possession  of  Epipolro,  and  erected  on  the  summit  a  fort  called 
Labdalum.  Then  coming  farther  down  the  hill  towards  Syracuse, 
he  built  another  fort  of  a  circular  form  and  of  considerable  size  at  a 
place  called  Sykc'.  From  the  latter  point  he  commenced  his  line 
of  circumvallation,  one  wall  extending  southwards  from  Syke  to 
the  Great  Harbour,  and  the  other  wall  running  northwards  to  the 
outer  sea.  The  Athenians  succeeded  in  completing  the  circum- 
vallation towards  the  south,  but  in  one  of  their  many  engagements 
with  the  Syracusans  they  lost  the  gallant  Lamachus.  At  the  same 
time,  the  Athenian  fleet  entered  the  Great  Harbour,  where  it  was 
henceforth  permanently  established.    The  northern  wall  was  nevcj 


118  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIL 

completed,  and  through  the  passaf:je  tints  left  open  the  bcsicc^ed  con« 
tiiiued  to  obtain  provisions.  Nicias,  avIio,  hy  the  death  of  Luniachus, 
had  become  sole  commander,  seemed  now  on  the  point  of  succeed- 
infc.  The  Syracusans  were  so  sensible  of  their  inferiority  in  tho 
field  that  they  no  longer  ventured  to  show  themselves  outside  tho 
walls.  They  began  to  contem})late  surrender,  and  even  sent  mes- 
sages to  Nicias  to  treat  of  the  terms.  This  caused  the  Athenian 
commander  to  indulge  in  a  false  confidence  of  success,  and  conse- 
quent apathy ;  and  tlie  army  having  lost  the  active  and  energetic 
Lamachus,  operations  were  no  longer  carried  on  with  the  requisite 
activity. 

It  was  in  this  state  of  affairs  tliat  the  Spartan  commander, 
Gylippus,  passed  over  into  Italy  with  a  little  squadron  of  four 
ships,  with  the  view  merely  of  preserving  the  Greek  cities  in  that 
country,  supposing  tliat  Syracuse,  and,  with  her,  the  other  Greek 
cities  in  Sicily,  Avorc  irretrievably  lost.  At  Tarcntum  he  learned 
to  his  great  surprise  and  satisfaction  that  the  Athenian  Avail  of 
circumA-allation  at  Syracuse  had  not  yet  been  completed  on  the 
northern  side,  lie  now  sailed  through  the  Straits  of  Mcssana, 
which  were  left  completely  unguarded,  and  arrived  safely  at 
Ilimcra  on  the  nortli  coast  of  Sicily.  Here  he  announced  liim- 
self  as  the  forerunner  of  larger  succours,  and  began  to  levy  an 
army,  which  the  magic  of  the  Spartan  name  soon  enabled  him  to 
effect ;  and  in  a  few  days  he  was  in  a  condition  to  march  towards 
Svracuse  Avith  about  3000  men.  The  Syracusans  now  dismissed 
all  thoughts  of  surrender,  and  went  out  boldly  to  meet  Gylipi)U?, 
Avho  marched  into  Syracuse  over  tlie  heights  of  Epipohc,  which 
the  supineness  of  Nicias  had  left  nnguarded.  Upon  arriving  in 
the  city,  Gylippus  sent  a  message  to  the  Athenians  allowing  them 
a  fiA'e  days'  truce  to  collect  their  effects  and  evacuate  the  island. 
Nicias  returned  no  answer  to  this  insulting  proposal ;  but  the 
operations  of  Gylippus  soon  showed  that  the  tide  of  affairs  Avas 
really  turned.  His  first  exploit  AA'as  to  capture  the  Athenian  fort 
at  Labdalum,  Avhich  made  him  master  of  Ei)ipola}.  He  next  com- 
menced constructing  a  counter-wall  to  intersect  tbe  Athenian  linos 
on  the  northern  side.  Tliis  turn  of  affairs  induced  those  Sicilian 
cities  which  had  hitherto  hesitated  to  embrace  the  side  of  Syracuse. 
Gylipi)us  was  also  re-enforced  by  the  arriA'al  of  thirty  triremes  from 
Corinth,  Leucas,  and  Ambracia.  Nicias  now  felt  that  the  attcm])t 
to  blockade  Syracuse  Avith  his  present  force  Avas  lK)])elcss.  Ho 
therefore  resolved  to  occu])y  the  headland  of  Plemmyrium,  tho 
southernmost  point  of  the  entrance  to  the  Great  Harbour,  Avhich 
would  be  a  conA'cnient  station  for  Avatcliing  the  enemy,  as  well  as 
for  facilitating  the  introduction  of  lupplies.     Here  he  accordingly 


B.C.  413.  ATIIENIiVXS  IN  SICILY.  119 

erected  three  forts  and  formed  a  naval  station.  Some  slight  af- 
fairs occurred,  in  which  the  balance  of  advantage  was  in  favour  of 
the  Syracusans.  By  their  change  of  station  the  Athenians  were 
now  a  besieged  rather  than  a  besiegiijg  force.  Their  triremes 
were  becoming  leaky,  and  tlieir  soldiers  and  sailors  were  constantly 
deserting.  Kicias  himself  had  fallen  into  a  bad  state  of  health ; 
and  in  this  discouraging  posture  of  atuiirs  lie  wrote  to  Athens  re- 
questing to  be  recalled,  and  insisting  strongly  on  the  necessity  of 
sending  re-enforcements. 

The  Athenians  refused  to  recall  Nicias,  but  they  determined  en 
sending  a  large  re-enforcement  to  Sicily  under  the  joint  command 
of  Demosthenes  and  Eurymedon.  The  news  of  these  fresh  and 
extensive  preparations  incited  the  Lacedaemonians  to  more  vigor- 
ous action.  The  peace,  if  such  it  can  be  called,  was  now  openly 
broken  ;  and  in  the  spring  of  413  B.C.,  the  Lacedamionians,  under 
King  Agis,  invaded  Attica  itself,  and,  following  the  advice  of  Al- 
cibiades,  established  themselves  permanently  at  Decelea,  a  place 
situated  on  the  ridge  of  Mount  Barnes,  about  14  miles  north  of 
Athens,  and  commanding  the  Athenian  plain.  The  city  was  thus 
placed  in  a  state  of  siege.  Scarcity  began  to  be  felt  within  tlic 
walls ;  the  revenues  were  falling  off,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  ex- 
penses were  increasing. 

Meanwhile  in  Sicily  the  Syracusans  had  gained  such  confidence 
that  they  even  ventured  on  a  naval  engagement  with  the  Athe- 
nians. In  the  first  battle  the  Athenians  were  victorious,  but  the 
second  battle,  which  lasted  two  days,  ended  in  their  defeat.  They 
were  now  obliged  to  haul  up  their  ships  in  the  innermost  part  of 
the  Great  Harbour,  under  the  lines  of  their  fortified  camp.  A 
still  more  serious  disaster  than  tlie  loss  of  the  battle  was  the  loss 
of  their  naval  reputation.  It  was  evident  that  the  Athenians  had 
ceased  to  be  invincible  on  'he  sea  ;  and  the  Syracusans  no  longer 
despaired  of  overcoming  them  on  their  own  element. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  when,  to  the  astonishment  of  the 
Syracusans,  a  fresh  Athenian  fleet  of  75  triremes,  under  Demos- 
thenes and  Eurymedon,  entered  the  Great  Harbour  with  all  the 
pom.p  and  circumstance  of  war.  It  had  on  board  a  force  of  5000 
lioplites,  of  Avhom  about  a  quarter  were  Athenians,  and  a  great 
number  of  light-armed  troops.  The  active  and  enterprising  char- 
acter of  Demosthenes  led  him  to  adopt  more  vigorous  measures 
than  those  which  had  been  hitherto  pursued.  He  saw  at  once 
that  whilst  Epipolre  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Syracusans 
there  Avas  no  hope  of  taking  their  city,  and  he  therefore  directed 
all  liis  efforts  to  the  recapture  of  that  position.  But  his  attempts 
were  unavailing.     He  was  defeated  not  only  in  an  open  assault 


120  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XH 

upon  the  Syracusan  wall,  but  in  a  noctumal  attempt  to  carry  ix 
by  surprise.  These  reverses  were  aggravated  by  the  breaking  out 
of  sickness  among  the  troops.  Demostliencs  now  proposed  to  re- 
turn home  and  assist  in  expelling  the  Lacedemonians  from  At- 
tica, instead  of  pursuing  an  enterprise  which  seemed  to  be  ho])eN 
less.  But  Nicias,  who  feared  to  return  to  Athens  with  the  Btigm:^ 
of  failure,  refused  to  give  his  consent  to  this  step.  Demosthenes 
then  urged  Nicias  at  least  to  sail  immediately  out  of  the  Great 
Harbour,  and  take  up  their  position  cither  at  Thapsus  or  Catana, 
where  they  could  obtain  abundant  supplies  of  provisions,  and  would 
have  an  open  sea  for  the  manoeuvres  of  their  fleet.  But  even  to 
this  pi'oposal  Nicias  would  not  consent ;  and  the  army  and  navy 
remained  in  their  former  position.  Soon  afterwards,  however, 
Gylippus  received  such  large  re-enforcements,  that  Nicias  found 
it  necessary  to  adopt  the  advice  of  his  colleague.  Preparations 
were  secretly  made  for  their  departure  ;  the  enemy  appear  to  have 
had  no  suspicion  of  their  intention,  and  tljcy  wei^e  on  the  point  of 
quitting  their  ill-fated  quarters  on  the  following  morning,  when,  on 
the  very  night  before  (27th  Aug.,  413  n.c.),  an  eclipse  of  the  moon 
took  place.  Tlie  soothsayers  Avho  were  consulted  said  that  the 
army  must  wait  thrice  nine  days,  a  full  circle  of  the  moon,  before 
it  could  quit  its  present  position  ;  and  the  devout  and  superstitious 
Nicias  forthwith  resolved  to  abide  by  this  decision. 

Meanwhile  the  intention  of  the  Athenians  became  known  to  the 
Syracusans,  who  determined  to  strike  a  blow  before  their  enemy 
escaped.  They  accordingly  attacked  the  Athenian  station  both 
by  sea  and  land.  On  land  the  attack  of  Gylippus  M-as  repulsed ; 
but  at  sea  the  Athenian  fleet  was  completely  defeated,  and  Eurym- 
cdon,  wlio  commanded  the  right  division,  was  slain.  The  spir- 
its of  the  Syracusans  rose  with  their  victories ;  and  though  they 
would  formerly  have  been  content  with  the  mere  retreat  of  the 
Atlienians,  they  now  resolved  on  effecting  their  utter  destruction. 
With  this  view  they  blocked  up  the  entrance  of  the  Great  Harbour 
with  a  line  of  vessels  moored  across  it.  All  hope  seemed  now  to 
be  cut  off  from  the  Athenians,  unless  they  could  succeed  in  forc- 
ing this  line  and  thus  effecting  their  escape.  The  Athenian  fleet 
Btill  numbered  110  triremes,  which  Nicias  furnished  with  grap- 
pling irons,  in  order  to  bring  the  enemy  to  close  quarters,  and 
tlien  caused  a  large  proportion  of  ins  land-forces  to  embark. 

Never,  perhaps,  was  a  battle  fought  under  circumstances  of  such 
intense  interest,  or  witnessed  by  so  many  spectators  vitally  con- 
cerned in  tlie  result.  Tlic  basin  of  the  Great  Harbour,  about  5 
miles  in  circumference,  in  which  nearly  200  shij)s,  cacli  witli  crewa 
of  more  than  200  men,  were  about  to  engage,  was  lined  with  spec- 


B.C.  413.     FIGHT  IN  THE  GREAT  HAEBOUR.  121 

tators.  The  Syracusan  fleet  was  the  first  to  leave  the  shore,  A 
considerahlc  portion  was  detained  to  guard  the  harrier  at  the  mouth 
of  the  liarbour.  Hither  the  first  and  most  impetuous  attack  of 
the  Athenians  was  directed,  who  sought  to  break  through  the  nar- 
row opening  which  had  been  left  for  the  passage  of  merchant  ves- 
sels. Their  onset  was  repulsed,  and  the  battle  then  became  gen- 
eral. Tlie  shouts  of  the  combatants,  and  the  crash  of  the  iron 
heads  of  the  vessels  as  they  were  driven  together,  resounded  over 
the  water,  and  were  answered  on  shore  by  the  cheers  or  wailings 
of  the  spectators  as  their  friends  were  victorious  or  vanquished. 
For  a  long  time  the  battle  was  maintained  with  heroic  courage  and 
dubious  result.  At  length,  as  the  Athenian  vessels  began  to  yield 
and  make  back  towards  the  shore,  a  universal  shriek  of  horror  and 
despair  arose  from  the  Athenian  army,  whilst  shouts  of  joy  and 
victory  were  raised  from  the  pursuing  vessels,  and  were  echoed 
back  from  the  Syracusans  on  land.  As  the  Athenian  vessels  near- 
ed  the  shore  tlieir  crews  leaped  out,  and  made  for  the  camp,  whilst 
the  boldest  of  the  land  army  rushed  forward  to  protect  the  ships 
from  being  seized  by  the  enemy.  The  Athenians  succeeded  in  sav- 
ing only  GO  ships,  or  about  half  their  fleet.  The  Syracusan  fleet, 
hovv'ever,  had  been  reduced  to  50  ships ;  and  on  the  same  after- 
noon Nicias  and  Demosthenes,  as  a  last  hope  of  escape,  exhorted 
their  men  to  make  another  attempt  to  break  the  enemy's  line,  and 
force  their  way  out  of  the  harbour.  But  the  courage  of  the  crews 
was  so  completely  damped  that  they  positively  refused  to  re-em- 
bark. 

The  Athenian  army  still  numbered  40,000  men  ;  and,  as  all 
chance  of  escape  by  sea  was  now  hopeless,  it  was  resolved  to  re- 
treat by  land  to  some  friendly  city,  and  there  defend  themselves 
against  the  attacks  of  the  Syracusans.  As  the  soldiers  turned  to 
quit  that  fatal  encampment,  the  sense  of  their  own  woes  Avas  for  a 
moment  suspended  by  the  sight  of  their  unburied  comrades,  who 
seemed  to  reproach  them  with  the  neglect  of  a  sacred  duty ;  but 
still  more  by  the  Availings  and  entreaties  of  the  Avoundcd,  who 
clung  around  their  knees,  and  implored  not  to  be  abandoned  to 
certain  destruction.  Amid  this  scene  of  universal  woe  and  dejec- 
tion, a  fresh  and  imwonted  spirit  of  energy  and  heroism  seemed  to 
be  infused  into  Nicias.  Though  suffering  under  an  incurable  com- 
plaint, he  was  everywhere  seen  marshalling  his  troops,  and  en- 
couraging them  by  his  exhortations.  The  march  was  directed  to- 
wards the  territory  of  the  Sicels,  in  the  interior  of  the  island.  The 
army  Avas  formed  into  a  hollow  square,  with  the  baggage  in  the 
middle;  Nicias  leading  the  van,  and  Demosthenes  bringing  up  the 
rear.    The  road  ascended  by  a  sort  of  ravine  over  a  steep  hill  call- 


122  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIL 

cd  the  Acrpp.an  cliff,  on  which  the  Symcusans  liad  fortified  them- 
selves. After  spcndiii.ijj  two  days  in  Ajiin  attempts  to  force  this  po- 
sition, Nicias  and  Demosthenes  resolved  durinj:;  the  night  to  strike 
off  to  the  left  towards  the  sea.  Bnt  they  were  overtaken,  snrround- 
ed  by  superior  forces,  and  compelled  to  surrender  at  discretion. 
Out  of  the  40,000  who  started  from  the  camj),  only  10,000,  at  the 
utmost,  were  left  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  day's  march  ;  the  rest  had 
either  deserted  or  been  slain.  The  prisoners  were  sent  to  work  in 
the  stone-quarries  of  Achradina  and  Ei)ij)ohc.  Here  they  were 
crowded  together  without  any  shelter,  and  with  scarcely  jirovisions 
enougli  to  sustain  life.  The  numerous  bodies  of  those  who  died 
were  left  to  putrefy  where  they  had  fallen,  till  at  length  the  place 
became  such  an  intolerable  centre  of  stench  and  infection  that,  at 
the  end  of  seventy  days,  the  Syracusans,  for  their  own  comfort  and 
safety,  were  obliged  to  remove  the  survivors,  who  were  sold  as 
slaves.  Nicias  and  Demosthenes  Avcrc  condemned  to  death,  in 
s])ite  of  all  the  clforts  of  Gylipi)us  and  Hcrmocrates  to  save  them. 

Such  was  the  end  of  two  of  the  largest  and  best-a])pointed  arma- 
ments that  had  ever  gone  forth  from  Athens.  Nicias,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  from  the  first  opposed  to  the  expedition  in  which  they 
were  cmjdoyed,  as  ]iregnant  with  the  most  dangerous  consequences 
to  Atliens ;  and,  though  it  must  bo  admitted  that  in  this  resjiect 
his  views  were  sound,  it  can  not,  at  the  same  time,  bo  concealed 
that  his  own  want  of  energy,  and  his  incompetence  as  a  general, 
Avere  the  chief  causes  of  the  failure  of  the  undertaking.  His  mis- 
takes involved  the  fall  of  Demosthenes,  an  officer  of  far  greater 
resolution  and  ability  than  himself,  and  who,  had  his  counsels 
been  followed,  would  in  all  probability  have  conducted  the  enter- 
prise to  a  safe  termination,  though  there  was  no  longer  room  to 
Iiopc  for  success. 


:'^i.'^  -,<: 


View  of  the  Theatre  at  Ephesu.?. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE   rELO->ON>-ESIAN    AVAR. — THIRD    PERIOD,   FROM    THE    SICILIAN 
EXPEDITION    TO    THE    END    OF    THE    WAR,    B.C.  413-401. 

The  destruction  of  tlic  Sicilian  armament  was  a  fatal  blow  to 
the  power  of  Athens.  It  is  astonishing  that  she  was  able  to  pro- 
tract the  war  so  long  with  diminished  strength  and  resources. 
Her  situation  inspired  her  enemies  with  new  vigour;  states  hith- 
erto neutral  declared  against  her;  her  subject-allies  prepared  to 
throw  off  the  yoke ;  even  the  Persian  satraps  and  the  court  of 
Susa  bestirred  themselves  against  her.  The  first  blow  to  her  em- 
pire was  struck  by  the  wealthy  and  populous  island  of  Chios. 
This  again  was  the  work  of  Alcibiades,  the  implacable  enemy  of 
his  native  land,  at  whose  advice  a  Lacedaemonian  fleet  was  sent  to 
the  assistance  of  the  Chians.  Their  example  was  followed  by  all 
the  other  Athenian  allies  in  Asia,  with  the  exception  of  £\amos, 
in  which  the  democratical  party  gained  the  npper  hand.  In  the 
midst  of  this  general  defection  the  Athenians  did  not  give  way  to 
despair.  Pericles  had  set  apart  a  reserve  of  1000  talents  to  meet 
the  contingency  of  an  actual  invasion.  This  still  remained  un- 
touched ;  and  now,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  the  penalty  of  death, 
whicli  forbade  its  appropriation  to  any  other  purpose,  was  abolish- 


121  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIIL 

ed,  and  the  fund  applied  in  fitting  out  a  fleet  against  Chios.      Sa 
mos  became  tlie  head-quarters  of  the  fleet,  and  the  base  of  theij 

operations  during  the  remainder  of  the  war.  

After  a  time  the  tide  of  success  began  to  turn  in  favour  of  the 
Athenians.  They  recovered  Lesbos  and  Chu-omenje,  defeated  tlic 
Chians,  and  laid  waste  their  territory.  They  also  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Peloponnesians  at  Miletus;  while  the  Peloponnesian 
fleet  had  lost  the  assistance  of  Tissapherncs,  the  Persian  satrap, 
through  the  intrigues  of  Alcibiadcs.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
months  Alcibiadcs  had  completely  forfeited  the  confidence  of  the 
Lacoilajmonians.  The  Spartan  king  Agis,  whose  wife  he  had  se- 
duced, was  his  personal  enemy ;  and  after  the  defeat  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians at  Miletus,  Agis  denounced  him  as  a  traitor,  and  per- 
suaded tlic  new  Ephors  to  send  out  instructions  to  put  him  to 
death.  Of  this,  however,  he  was  informed  time  enough  to  make 
his  escape  to  Tis.^aijhernes  at  ]\Iagncsia.  Here  he  ingratiated 
himself  into  the  confidence  of  the  satrap,  and  persuaded  him  that 
it  was  not  for  tlie  interest'  of  Persia  that  either  of  the  Grecian  par- 
ties should  be  successful,  but  rather  that  they  should  wear  each 
other  out  in  their  mutual  struggles,  when  Persia  would  in  the  end 
succeed  in  expelling  both.  This  advice  was  adopted  by  the  sa- 
trap ;  and  in  order  to  carry  it  into  execution,  steps  were  taken  to 
secure  the  inactivity  of  the  Peloponnesian  armament,  which,  if 
vigorously  employed,  was  powerful  enough  to  i)ut  a  speedy  end  to 
the  war.  In  order  to  secure  his  return  to  Athens,  Alcibiadcs  now 
endeavoured  to  persuade  Tissaidierncs  that  it  was  more  for  the 
Persian  interest  to  conclude  a  league  with  Athens  than  with  Spar- 
ta ;  but  the  only  part  of  his  advice  which  the  satrap  seems  to  have 
sincerely  adoi)ted  was  that  of  ])laying  olF  one  party  against  the 
otlier.  About  this,  however,  Alcibiadcs  did  not  at  all  concern 
himself.  It  was  enough  for  his  views,  which  had  merely  the  self- 
fish  aim  of  his  own  restoration  to  Athens,  if  he  could  make  it  ap> 
pear  that  he  possessed  suflicient  influence  with  Tissapherncs  to 
procure  his  assistance  for  the  Athenians.  He  therefore  began  to 
communicate  with  the  Athenian  generals  at  Samos,  and  held  out 
tlie  hope  of  a  Persian  alliance  as  the  jiricc  of  his  restoration  to  his 
country.  Put  as  he  both  hated  and  feared  the  Athenian  democ- 
racy, he  cou])led  his  oft'er  with  the  condition  that  a  revolution 
fihould  be  efrected  at  Athens,  and  an  oligarchy  established.  The 
Athenian  generals  greedily  caught  at  the  i)roposal ;  and  though 
the  great  mass  of  the  soldiery  were  violently  ojtposed  to  it,  they 
were  silenced,  if  not  satisfied,  when  told  that  Athens  could  be 
saved  only  by  means  of  Persia.  The  oligarchical  conspirators 
formed  t'.icmselves  into  a  confcderacv,  and  Pisandcr  was  sent  to 


B.C.  412.  REVOLUTION  AT  ATHENS.  125 

Athens  to  lay  the  proposal  before  the  Athenian  assembh^  It  n:ct, 
as  it  might  be  supposed,  with  the  most  determined  opposition. 
The  single  but  unanswerable  reply  of  Pisander  was,  the  necessities 
of  the  republic ;  and  at  length  a  reluctant  vote  for  a  change  of 
constitution  was  extorted  from  the  people.  Pisander  and  ten 
others  were,  despatched  to  treat  with  Alcibiades  and  Tissapherncs. 

Upon  their  arrival  in  Ionia  they  informed  Alcibiades  that  meas: 
ures  had  been  taken  for  establishing  an  oligarchical  form  of  gov-r 
ernment  at  Athens,  and  requii'cd  him  to  fuiiil  his  part  of  the  en^- 
gagement  by  procuring  the  aid  and  alliance  of  Persia.  But  Alci^ 
blades  knew  that  he  liad  undertaken  ^\hat  he  could  not  perform, 
and  he  now  resolved  to  escape  from  the  dilemma  by  one  of  his 
habitual  artifices.  He  received  the  Athenian  deputation  in  the 
presence  of  Tissapherncs  himself,  and  made  such  extravagant  de-. 
mands  on  behalf  of  the  satrap  that  Pisander  and  his  colleagues 
indignantly  broke  off  the  conference. 

Notwithstanding  the  conduct  of  Alcibiades,  the  oligarchical  con- 
spirators proceeded  with  the  revolution  at  Athens,  in  which  they 
bad  gone  too  far  to  recede.  Pisander,  with  five  of  the  envoys, 
returned  to  Athens  to  complete  the  work  they  had  begun. 

Pisander  proposed  in  the  asserabl}",  and  carried  a  resolution, 
that  a  committee  of  ten  should  be  appointed  to  prepare  a  new  con- 
stitution, which  was  to  be  submitted  to  the  approbation  of  the  peo- 
ple. But  when  the  day  appointed  for  that  purpose  arrived,  the 
assembly  was  not  convened  in  the  Pnyx,  biit  in  the  temple  of 
Poseidon  at  Colonus,  a  village  ujjwavds  of  a  mile  from  Athens. 
Here  the  conspirators  could  plant  their  own  partisans,  and  were 
less  liable  to  be  overawed  by  su])crior  numbers.  Pisander  obtained 
the  assent  of  the  meeting  to  the  following  revolutionary  changes  : 
1.  The  abolition  of  all  the  existing  magistracies;  2.  The  cessa- 
tion of  all  payments  for  the  discharge  of  civil  functions;  3.  The 
appointment  of  a  committee  of  five  persons,  who  were  to  name 
ninety-five  more  ;  each  of  the  hundred  thus  constituted  to  choose 
three  persons ;  the  body  of  Four  Hundred  thus  formed  to  be  an 
irresponsible  government,  holding  its  sittings  in  the  senate-house. 
The  four  hundred  were  to  convene  a  select  body  of  five  thousand 
citizens  whenever  they  thought  proper.  Nobody  knew  who  these 
^ive  thousand  were,  but  tliey  answered  tAvo  purposes,  namely,  to 
give  an  air  of  greater  popularity  to  the  government,  as  well  as  to 
overawe  the  people  by  an  exaggerated  notion  of  its  strength. 

Thus  perished  the  Athenian  democracy,  after  an  existence  of 
nearly  a  century  since  its  establishment  by  Clisthenes.  The  revo- 
lution was  begun  from  despair  of  the  foi-eign  relations  of  Athens, 
and  from  the  hope  of  assistance  from  Persia ;  but  it  was  earned 


12G  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIII. 

out  tlirou^li  tlic  macliiiiations  of  the  conspirators  after  that  delu- 
sion had  ceased. 

At  Samos  the  Atlienian  army  refused  to  rcco>:nize  the  new  gov- 
ernment. At  tlie  instance  of  Thrasybuliis  jiihI  Tlirasyllns,  a  meet- 
inj;  was  called  in  which  tlie  soldiers  ]dedgcd  themselves  to  main- 
tain the  democracy,  to  continue  tlie  war  against  Peloponnesus, 
and  to  put  down  the  usurpers  at  Athens.  The  soldiers,  laying 
aside  for  a  wliilc  their  military  character,  constituted  themselves 
into  an  assembly  of  the  ])eo])le,  deposed  several  of  their  officers, 
and  appointed  others  whom  they  could  better  trust.  Thrasybiilus 
])ro])Osed  t!ie  recall  of  Alcibiades,  notwithstanding  his  connection 
with  the  oligarchical  conspiracy,  because  it  was  believed  that  he 
was  now  able  and  willing  to  aid  the  democratic  cause  with  the 
gold  and  forces  of  Persia.  After  considerable  o])])osition,  the  ]»ro- 
posal  w;is  agreed  to  ;  Alcibiades  was  brought  to  Samos  and  intro- 
duced to  the  asscmbh',  where,  by  his  magnificent  ])romiscs  and  ex- 
travagant boasts  respecting  his  influence  with  Tissa])liernes,  he 
once  more  succeeded  in  deceiving  the  Athenians.  The  accom- 
])lislied  traitor  was  elected  one  of  the  generals,  and,  in  jnn'suancc 
of  his  artful  jxdicy,  began  to  ])ass  backwards  and  forwards  between 
Samos  and  Magnesia,  with  the  view  of  inspiring  botli  the  satrap 
and  tlie  Athenians  with  a  reciprocal  idea  of  his  iniiuencc  Avitli 
cither,  and  of  instilling  distrust  of  Tissa])hernes  into  the  minds  of 
tlie  Peloponncsians. 

At  the  first  news  of  tlie  re-estab;ishment  of  democracy  at  Samos, 
distrust  and  discord  had  broken  out  among  the  Four  Hundred. 
Antiphon  and  Phrynichus,  at  the  head  of  the  extreme  section  of 
the  oligarchical  party,  were  for  admitting  a  Lacedicmonian  garri- 
son. Jjiit  others,  discontented  with  their  share  of  ])Owcr,  began  to 
air,'ct  more  i)oi)ular  sentiments,  anujug  wlu)m  were  Thcramencs 
aTid  Aristocrates.  Menntiiuc  Eid)tt!a,  su])ported  by  the  Laccdic- 
monians  and  Ikcotians,  revolted  from  Athens.  The  loss  of  this 
island  seemed  a  death-blow.  The  Laccdicmonians  might  now 
easily  l)l()cka(h!  the  jiorts  of  Athens  and  starve  licr  into  surrender, 
whilst  tlie  i)artisans  of  the  Four  Hundred  would  doubtless  co-ojt- 
erate  with  tlio  enemy.  But  from  tliis  ftitc  they  were  saved  by  tho 
characteristic  slowness  of  the  Lacedicmonians,  who  confined  them- 
selves to  secnring  the  conquest  of  Kubcoa.  'J'lins  left  unmolested, 
the  Athenians  convened  an  assembly  in  tlic  Pnyx.  "\^)tcs  were 
jiassed  for  deiK)sing  the  Fonr  HiindriHl,  :ind  jihicing  the  govern- 
ment in  tlie  hands  of  the  5000,  of  wliom  every  citizen  who  could 
furnish  a  jianoply  might  be  a  member.  In  short,  the  old  consti- 
tution was  restored,  except  that  the  fraiuhise  was  restricted  to 
rAH){)  citizens,  and  ]>aymcnt  for  the  discharge  of  civil  f^iinclions 


B.C.  411.    NAVAL  VICTORY  AT  CYNOSSEMA.  127 

abolislietl.  In  subsequent  assemblies,  the  Archons,  the  Senate, 
and  other  institutions  were  revived ;  and  a  vote  was  passed  to  re- 
call Alcibiades  and  some  of  his  friends.  The  number  of  the  5000 
was  never  exactly  observed,  and  was  soon  enlarged  into  universal 
citizenship.  Thus  the  Four  Hundred  were  overthrown  after  a 
reign  of  four  months,  B.C.  411. 

While  these  things  were  going  on  at  Athens,  the  war  was  pros- 
ecuted with  vigour  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Mindarus,  Avho 
now  commanded  the  Peloponnesian  fleet,  disgusted  at  length  by 
the  often-broken  promises  of  Tissapherncs,  and  the  scanty  and  ir- 
regular pay  which  he  furnished,  set  sail  from  Miletus  and  proceed- 
ed to  the  Hellespont,  with  the  intention  of  assisting  the  satrap 
Pharnabazus,  and  of  effecting,  if  possible,  the  revolt  of  the  Athe- 
nian dependencies  in  that  quarter.  Hither  he  was  pursued  by  the 
Athenian  fleet  imder  Thrasyllus.  In  a  few  days  an  engagement 
ensued  (in  August,  411  b.c),  in  the  famous  straits  between  Scstos 
and  Abydos,  in  which  the  Athenians,  though  with  a  smaller  force, 
gained  the  victory,  and  erected  a  trophy  on  the  jjromontory  of  Cy- 
nossema,  near  the  tomb  and  chapel  of  the  Trojan  queen  llccuba. 
The  Athenians  followed  up  their  victory  by  the  reduction  of  C\  z- 
icus,  which  had  revolted  from  tlicm.  A  month  or  two  afterwards 
another  obstinate  engagement  took  place  between  the  Peloponne- 
sian and  Athenian  fleets  near  Abydos,  which  lasted  a  whole  day, 
and  was  at  length  decided  in  faA'Our  of  the  Athenians  by  the  arrival 
of  Alcibiades  with  his  squadron  of  eighteen  ships  from  Samos. 

Shortly  after  this  battle,  Tissapl) ernes  arrived  at  the  Hellespont 
with  the  view  of  conciliating  the  offended  Peloponnesians.  He 
was  not  only  jealous  of  the  assistance  which  the  latter  were  now 
rendering  to  Pharnabazus,  but  it  is  also  evident  that  his  temporiz- 
ing policy  had  displeased  the  Persian  court.  This  appears  from 
his  conduct  on  the  present  occasion,  as  well  as  from  the  subse- 
quent appointment  of  Cyrus  to  the  supreme  command  on  the  Asi- 
atic coast,  as  we  shall  presently  have  to  relate.  AVhen  Alcibiades, 
who  imagined  that  Tissapherncs  was  still  favourable  to  tlie  Athe- 
nian cause,  Avaited  on  him  with  the  customary  presents,  he  was  ar- 
rested by  order  of  the  satrap,  and  sent  in  custody  to  Sardis.  At  the 
end  of  a  month,  however,  he  contrived  to  escape  to  Clazomcna% 
and  again  joined  tbe  Athenian  fleet  early  in  the  spring  of  410  n.c. 
Mindarus,  with  the  assistance  of  Pharnabazus  on  the  land  side, 
was  now  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Cyzicus,  which  the  Athenian  ad- 
mirals determined  to  relieve.  Here  a  battle  ensued,  in  which  Min- 
darus was  slain,  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Persians  routed,  and  al- 
most the  whole  Peloponnesian  fleet  captured.  The  severity  of  this 
blow  was  pictured  in  the  laconic  epistle  in  which  Ilip)iocrates,  the 


128  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIII. 

second  in  command,*  announced  it  to  the  Ephors:  "Our  good 
luck  is  gone ;  Mindarus  is  slain  ;  the  men  are  starving ;  mc  know 
not  what  to  do." 

The  results  of  this  victory  were  most  important.  Pcrinthus  and 
Sclymbria,  as  well  as  Cyzicus,  were  recovered ;  and  the  Athenians, 
once  moi'e  masters  of  the  Propontis,  fortified  the  town  of  Chrysop- 
olis,  over  against  Byzantium,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bosporus;  re- 
established their  toll  of  ten  per  cent,  on  all  vessels  passing  from 
the  Euxine;  and  left  a  squadron  to  guard  the  strait  and  collect 
the  dues.  So  great  was  the  discouragement  of  the  Lacodaimoniana 
at  the  loss  of  their  fleet,  that  the  Ephor  Endius  proceeded  to  Atliens 
to  treat  for  peace  on  the  basis  of  both  parties  standing  just  as  they 
wore.  The  Athenian  assembly  was  at  this  time  led  by  the  dem- 
agogue Cleophon,  a  lamp-maker,  known  to  us  by  the  later  com- 
edies of  Aristophanes.  Cleophon  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of 
considerable  ability ;  but  the  late  victories  had  inspired  him  with 
too  sanguine  hopes,  and  he  advised  the  Athenians  to  reject  the 
terms  proposed  by  Endius.  Atliens  thus  threw  away  the  golden 
opi)ortunity  of  recruiting  her  shattered  forces,  of  which  she  stood 
so  much  in  need ;  and  to  this  unfortunate  advice  must  be  ascribed 
the  calamities  which  subsequently  overtook  her. 

The  possession  of  the  Bosporus  reopened  to  the  Athenians  the 
trade  of  the  Euxine.  From  his  lofty  fortress  at  Dccclea  the  Sjiar- 
tan  king  Agis  could  descry  tlie  corn-sliips  from  the  Euxine  sailing 
into  thii  harbour  of  tlie  Pirajus,  and  felt  how  fruitless  it  was  to  oc- 
cupy the  fields  of  Attica  whilst  such  abundant  supplies  of  provis- 
ions were  continually  finding  their  way  to  the  city. 

In  n.c.  403  tlie  important  towns  of  Chalcedon,  Sclymbria,  and 
Byzantium  fell  into  tlie  hands  of  the  Atlienians,  thus  leaving  them 
undisputed  masters  of  the  Propontis. 

These  great  achievements  of  Alcibiades  naturally  paved  the  way 
for  his  return  to  Athens.  In  the  spring  of  407  u.c.  he  proceeded 
witli  tlic  fieet  to  Samos,  and  from  thence  sailed  to  Piraius.  Hi* 
reception  was  far  more  favourable  than  he  had  ventured  to  antici- 
pate. Tlie  whole  i)opulatit)n  of  Athens  flocked  down  to  Pirajus  to 
welcome  him,  and  escorted  him  to  the  city.  He  seemed  to  be  in 
the  present  juncture  the  only  man  capable  of  restoring  the  gran- 
deur and  tlie  empire  of  Atlu'iis:  he  was  accordingly  named  gen- 
eral with  unliniited  powers,  and  a  force  of  lUO  triremes,  laOO  lio])- 
lites,  and  150  cavalry  i)laced  at  his  disposal.  Before  his  departuro 
he  took  an  opportunity  to  atone  for  the  impiety  of  which  he  had 
been  suspected.    Although  his  armament  was  in  perfect  readiness, 

*  (Jailed  Kj)u(nhus  or  "Fooretary"  in  the  Laredtrmdnian  fleet.  The  com 
wiandor  of  tlm  Ik'ut  had  the  title  of  yararchtis. 


B.C.  407,        PROCEEDINGS  OF  LYSANDER.  129 

he  delayed  its  sailinf^  till  after  the  celebration  of  the  Eleusiniau 
mysteries  at  the  beginning  of  September.  For  seven  years  the  cus- 
tomary procession  across  the  Thriasian  plain  had  been  suspended, 
owing  to  the  occupation  of  Dccelea  by  the  enemy,  -which  compel- 
led the  sacred  troop  to  proceed  by  sea.  Alcibiades  now  escorted 
them  on  their  progress  and  return  -with  his  forces,  and  thus  suc- 
ceeded in  reconciling  himself  with  the  oftended  goddesses  and 
witli  their  holy  priests,  the  Euniolpidrc. 

Meanwhile  a  great  change  had  been  going  on  in  the  state  of 
affairs  in  the  East.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  Great  King 
was  displeased  with  the  vacillating  policy  of  Tissaphernes,  and 
had  determined  to  adopt  .more  energetic  measures  against  the 
Athenians.  During  the  absence  of  Alcibiades,  Cyrus,  the  young- 
er son  of  Dai'ius,  a  prince  of  a  bold  and  enterprising  spirit,  and 
animated  with  a  lively  hatred  of  Athens,  had  arrived  at  the  coast 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  altered  policy  of  the  Persian 
court ;  and  with  that  view  he  had  been  invested  with  the  satrapies 
of  Lydia,  the  Greater  Phrygia,  and  Cappadocia.  The  arrival  of 
Cyrus  opens  the  last  phase  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Another 
event,  in  the  highest  degree  unfavourable  to  the  Athenian  cause, 
was  the  accession  of  Lysander,  as  JS^avarcIws,  to  the  command  of 
the  Peloponnesian  fleet.  Lysander  Avas  the  third  of  the  remark- 
able men  whom  Sparta  produced  during  the  war.  In  ability,  en- 
ergy, and  success  he  may  be  compared  with  Brasidas  and  Gylip- 
pns,  though  immeasurably  inferior  to  the  former  in  every  moral 
quality.  He  was  born  of  poor  parents,  and  was  by  descent  one 
of  those  Lacedixjmonians  who  could  never  enjoy  the  full  rights  of 
Spartan  citizenship.  Ilis  ambition  was  boundless,  and  he  was 
wholly  unscrupulous  about  the  means  which  he  employed  to  grat- 
ify it.  In  pursuit  of  his  objects  he  hesitated  at  neither  deceit,  nor 
perjury,  nor  cruelty,  and  he  is  reported  to  have  laid  it  down  as 
one  of  his  maxims  in  life  to  avail  himself  of  the  fox's  skin  where 
the  lion's  failed, 

Lysander  had  taken  up  his  station  at  Ephesus,  with  the  Lace- 
da3monian  fleet  of  70  triremes  ;  and  when  Cyrus  arrived  at  Sardis, 
in  the  spring  of  407  B.C.,  he  hastened  to  pay  his  court  to  the 
young  prince,  and  was  received  with  every  mark  of  favour,  A  vig- 
orous line  of  action  was  resolved  on,  Cvrus  at  once  offered  300 
talents,  and  affirmed  that,  if  more  were  needed,  he  was  prepared 
even  to  coin  into  money  the  very  throne  of  gold  and  silver  on 
which  ho  sat.  In  a  banquet  whicli  ensued  Cyrus  drank  to  the 
health  of  Lysander,  and  desired  him  to  name  any  wish  which  he 
could  gratify,  Lysander  immediately  requested  an  addition  of 
an  obolus  to  thq*  daily  pay  of  the  seamen.     Cyrus  was  surprised 

I 


130  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIIl 

at  so  disinterested  a  demand,  and  from  tliat  day  conceived  a  high 
degree  of  respect  and  confidence  for  tlie  Si)artan  commander. 
Lysander,  on  Lis  i-eturn  to  Epliesus,  employed  himself  in  refitting 
his  fleet,  and  in  organizing  clubs  in  the  Si)artan  interest  in  the 
cities  of  Asia. 

Alcibiades  set  sail  from  Athens  in  Sej)tembcr.  Being  ill  pro- 
vided with  funds  for  carrying  on  the  war,  he  was  driven  to  make 
predatory  excursions  for  the  purpose  of  raising  money.  During 
his  absence  he  intrusted  the  bulk  of  the  fleet  at  Samos  to  his 
pilot  Antioclius,  witli  strict  injunctions  not  to  venture  on  an  ac- 
tion. Notwithstanding  these  orders,  however,  Antioclms  sailed  out 
and  brought  the  Feloponnesiau  fleet  to  an  engagement  offNotium, 
in  which  the  Athenians  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  15  ships, 
and  Antioclius  himself  was  slain.  Among  the  Athenian  aniia- 
nicnt  itself  great  dissatisfaction  wa.^  growing  up  against  Alcibia- 
des. Though  at  the  head  of  a  sjdcadid  force,  he  had  in  three 
months'  time  accomplished  literally  notliing.  His  debaucheries 
and  dissolute  conduct  on  shore  were  charged  against  him,  as  well 
as  his  selecting  for  confidential  jjosts  not  the  men  best  fitted  for 
tlicm,  but  those  who,  like  Antioclius,  were  tlie  boon  comjianions 
and  the  chosen  associates  of  his  revels.  These  accusations  for- 
warded to  Athens,  and  fomented  by  his  secret  enemies,  soon  pro- 
duced an  entire  revulsion  in  the  public  feeling  towards  Alcibiades. 
The  Athenians  voted  that  he  should  be  dismissed  from  his  com'- 
mand,  and  they  ai)pointcd  in  his  place  ten  new  generals,  with  Co- 
con  at  their  head. 

The  year  of  Lysander's  command  expired  about  the  same  time 
ns  the  appointment  of  Conon  to  the  Athenian  fleet.  Through  the 
intrigues  of  Lysander,  his  successor  Callicratidas  was  received  with 
dissatisfaction  both  by  the  Laceda:monian  seamen  and  by  Cyrus. 
Loud  com})laints  were  raised  of  the  impolicy  of  an  annual  change 
of  commanders.  Lvsander  threw  all  sorts  of  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  his  successor,  to  whom  he  handed  over  an  empty  chest, 
having  first  repaid  to  Cyrus  all  the  money  in  his  possession  under 
the  pretence  that  it  was  a  private  loan.  The  straightfonvard  con- 
duct of  Callicratidas,  however,  who  summoiicd  the  Lacedaemonian 
commanders,  and,  after  a  dignified  remonstrance,  ] plainly  put  the 
question  whether  he  should  return  h.ome  or  remain,  silenced  all 
opposition.  But  he  was  sorely  embarrassed  for  funds.  Cyrus 
treated  him  with  haughtiness;  and  when  he  waited  on  that  ininco 
Bt  Sardis,  he  was  dismissed  not  only  without  money,  but  even  with- 
out an  audience.  Callicratidas,  however,  had  too  much  energy  to 
be  daunted  by  such  obstacles.  Sailing  with  his  fleet  from  Ephesua 
*o  Miletus,  he  laid  before  the  assembly  of  that  city,  in  a  spirited 


B.C.  40G.  BATTLE  OF  ARGINUSiE.  131 

address,  all  the  ills  they  had  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Persians, 
and  exhorted  them  to  bestir  themselves  and  dispense  with  the 
Persian  alliance.  Hie  .succeeded  in  persuading  the  Milesians  to 
make  him  a  large  grant  of  money,  whilst  the, leading  men  even 
came  forward  with  private  subscriptions.  By  means  of  this  as- 
sistance he  Avas  enabled  to  add  50  triremes  to  the  90  delivered  to 
him  by  Lysander;  and  the  Cliians  further, provided  him  with  ten 
days'  pay  for  the  seamen. 

The  fleet  of  Callicratidas  was  now  double  that  of  Conon.  The 
latter  was  compelled  to  run  before  the  superior  force  of  Callicrat- 
idas. Both  fleets  entered  the  harbour  of  Mytilene  at  the  same 
time,  where  a  battle  ensued,  in  which  Conon  lost  30  ships,  but  he 
eaved  the  remaining  forty  by  hauling  them  ashore  under  the  walls 
of  the  town.  Callicratidas  then  blockaded  Mytilene  both  by  sea 
and  land ;  but  Conon  contrived  to  despatch  a  trireme  to  Athens 
witli  the  news  of  his  desperate  position. 

As  soon  as  the  Athenians  received  intelligence  of  the  blockade 
of  Mytilene,  vast  cflbrts  were  made  for  its  relief;  and  we  learn 
with  surprise  that  in  thirty  days  a  fleet  of  110  triremes  was  equip- 
ped and  despatched  from  Pirrcus.  •  The  armrimcnt  assembled  at 
iSamos,  where  it  was  re-enforced  by  scattered  Athenian  ships,  and 
by  contingents  from  the  allies,  to  the  extent  of  40  vessels.  The 
whole  fleet  of  150  sail  then  proceeded  to  the  small  islands  of  Ar- 
ginusre,  near  the  coast  of  Asia,  and  facing  Malea,  the  southeastern 
cape  of  Lesbos.  Callicratidas,  wlio  went  out  to  meet  them,  took 
up  his  station  at  the  latter  point,  leaving  a  squadron  of  50  ships  to 
maintain  the  blockade  of  Mytilene.  He  had  thus  only  120  ships 
to  oppose  to  the  150  of  the  Athenians,  and  his  pilot  advised  him 
to  retire  before  the  superior  force  of  the  enemy.  But  Callicratidas 
replied  that  he  would  not  disgrace  himself  by  flight,  and  that  if 
he  should  perish  Sparta  would  not  feel  his  loss.  The  battle  was 
long  and  obstinate.  All  order  was  speedily  lost,  and  the  ships 
fought  singly  with  one  another.  In  one  of  these  contests,  Calli- 
cratidas, who  stood  on  the  prow  of  his  vessel  ready  to  board  the 
enemy,  Avas  thrown  overboard  by  the  shock  of  the  vessels  as  they 
met,  and  perished.  At  length  victory  began  to  decliire  for  the 
Athenians.  The  Lacedaemonians,  after  losing  77  vessels,  retreat- 
ed with  the  remainder  to  Chios  and  Phoceea.  The  loss  of  the 
Athenians  was  25  vessels. 

The  battle  of  Arginusa3  led  to  a  deplorable  event,  which  has  for 
ever  sullied  the  pages  of  Athenian  history.  At  least  a  dozen  Athe- 
nian vessels  were  left  floating  about  in  a  disabled  condition  after 
the  battle ;  but,  owing  to  a  violent  storm  that  ensued,  no  attempt 
was  made  to  rescue  the  survivors,  or  to  collect  the  bodies  of  the 


132  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIH. 

dead  for  burial.  Eight  of  tlie  ten  generals  -were  summoned  home 
to  answer  for  tliis  conduct ;  Conon,  by  his  situation  at  Mytilene, 
was  of  course  exculpated,  and  Archcstratus  had  died.  Six  of  the 
generals  obeyed  the  summons,  and  were  denounced  to  the  Assem- 
bly by  Theraracnes,  formerly  one  of  the  Four  Hundred,  for  neglect 
of  duty.  The  generals  replied  that  they  had  commissioned  Thcram- 
cncs  himself  and  Thrasybulus,  each  of  whom  commanded  a  tri- 
reme in  the  engagement,  to  undertake  the  duty,  and  had  assigned 
48  ships  to  them  for  that  purpose.  This,  however,  was  denied  by 
Theramencs.  There  arc  discre])ancics  in  the  evidence,  and  we  have 
no  materials  for  deciding  positively  which  statement  was  true  ;  but 
probability  inclines  to  the  side  of  the  generals.  Public  feeling, 
however,  ran  very  strongly  against  them,  and  was  increased  by  an 
incident  wliich  occurred  during  their  trial.  After  a  day's  debate, 
tiic  question  was  adjourned;  and  in  the  interval  the  festival  of  the 
Ajtatiiria  was  celebrated,  in  which,  according  to  annual  custom, 
the  fiimilics  met  together  according  to  their  families  and  phratries. 
Those  who  had  perislied  at  Arginusie  were  naturally  missed  on 
such  an  occasion  ;  and  the  usuallv  cheerful  charai-tcr  of  the  fcsti- 
val  was  deformed  and  rendered  melancholy  by  the  relatives  of  the 
deceased  appearing  in  black  clothes  and  with  shaven  heads.  The 
passions  of  the  people  were  violently  roused.  At  the  next  meet- 
ing of  the  Assembly,  Callixenus,  a  senator,  proposed  that  the  peo- 
ple should  at  once  proceed  to  pass  its  verdict  on  the  generals, 
though  they  had  been  only  partially  heard  in  their  defence ;  and, 
moreover,  that  they  should  all  be  included  in  one  sentence,  though 
it  was  contrary  to  a  rule  of  Attic  law,  known  as  the  psephisma  of 
Canonus,  to  indict  citizens  otherwise  than  individually.  The 
Frytanes,  or  senators  of  the  presiding  tribe,  at  first  refused  to  juit 
the  question  to  the  Assembly  in  this  illciral  way ;  but  their  opi)0- 
sition  was  at  length  overawed  by  clamour  and  violence.  There 
was,  however,  one  honourable  exception.  The  philosopher  Socra- 
tes, who  was  one  of  the  Frytanes,  refused  to  withdraw  his  protest. 
But  his  opposition  was  disregarded,  and  the  proposal  of  Callixenus 
was  carried.  The  generals  were  condemned,  delivered  over  to 
the  Eleven  for  execution,  and  compelled  to  drink  the  fatal  hem- 
lock. Among  them  was  Fericlcs.  the  son  of  the  celebrated  states- 
man. 

In  the  following  ycar(n.c.  40.'),  tlirough  llic  infiuonce  of  Cyrus 
and  the  other  allies  of  Sjiarta,  Lysaudcr  again  obtained  the  com- 
mand of  the  Feloi)onnesian  fleet,  though  nominally  under  Aracus 
as  admiral ;  since  it  was  contrary  to  Spartan  usage  that  the  same 
man  should  be  twice  NacarrJtus.  His  return  to  i)ower  was' mark- 
ed by  more  vigorous  measures.      He  sailed  to  the  Hellespont,  and 


B.C.  405.  CAPTURE  OF  THE  ATHENIAN  FLEET.  133 

laid  siege  to  Lampsacus.  The  Athenian  fleet  arrived  too  late  to 
save  the  town,  but  they  proceeded  up  the  strait  and  took  post  at 
^gospotarai,  or  the  "  Goat's  Kiver;"  a  place  which  had  nothing 
to  recommend  it  except  its  vicinity  to  Lampsacus,  from  which  it 
was  separated  by  a  channel  somewhat  less  than  two  miles  broad. 
It  was  a  mere  desolate  beach,  Avithout  houses  or  inhabitants,  so 
that  all  the  supplies  had  to  be  fetched  from  Scstos,  or  from  the 
surrounding  country,  and  the  seamen  were  compelled  to  leave 
their  sliips  in  order  to  obtain  their  meals.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, the  Athenians  were  very  desirous  of  bringing  Lysander  to 
an  engagement.  But  tlie  Spartan  commander,  who  was  in  a  strong 
position,  and  abundantly  furnished  with  provisions,  was  in  no  hur- 
ry to  run  any  risks.  In  vain  did  the  Athenians  sail  over  several 
days  in  succession  to  ofter  him  battle  ;  they  always  found  his  ships 
ready  manned,  and  drawn  up  in  too  strong  a  position  to  warrant 
an  attack ;  nor  could  they  by  all  their  manoeuvres  succeed  in  en- 
ticing him  out  to  combat.  This  cowardice,  as  they  deemed  it,  on 
the  part  of  tlie  Lacedaemonians,  begat  a  corresponding  negligence 
on  theirs ;  discipline  was  neglected,  and  the  men  allov.ed  to  strag- 
gle almost  at  will.  It  was  in  vain  that  Alcibiades,  who,  since  his 
dismissal,  resided  in  a  fortress  in  that  neighbourhood,  remonstrated 
Avith  the  Athenian  generals  on  the  exposed  nature  of  the  station 
they  had  chosen,  and  advised  them  to  [iroceed  to  Scstos.  His  coun- 
sels were  received  Avitli  taunts  and  insults.  At  length,  on  the  fifth 
day,  Lysander,  having  watched  an  opportunity  when  the  Athenian 
seamen  had  gone  on  shore  and  were  dispersed  over  the  country, 
rowed  swiftly  across  the  strait  with  all  his  ships.  He  found  the 
Athenian  licet,  with  the  exception  of  10  or  12  A'cssels,  totally  un- 
prepared, and  he  captured  nearly  the  whole  of  it,  without  having 
occasion  to  strike  a  single  blow.  Of  the  180  ships  which  composed 
the  fleet,  only  the  trireme  of  Conon  himself,  the  Paralus,  and  8  or 
1 0  otlier  vessels,  succeeded  in  escaping.  Conon  was  afraid  to  re- 
turn to  Athens  after  so  signal  a  disaster,  and  took  refuge  with 
EA-agoras,  prince  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus. 

By  this  momentous  A^ictory  (September,  B.C.  405)  the  Pelopon- 
iissian  Avar  Avas  virtually  brought  to  an  end.  Lysandei',  secure 
of  an  easy  triumph,  Avas  in  no  haste  to  gather  it  by  force.  Tiie 
command  of  the  Euxine  enabled  him  to  control  the  supplies  of 
Athens,  and  sooner  or  later,  a  fcAV  Aveeks  of  famine  must  decide 
her  fall.  He  noAv  sailed  forth  to  take  possession  of  the  Athenian 
toAvns,  Avhifh  fell  one  after  another  into  his  jJOAver  as  soon  as  ho. 
appeared  before  them.  About  November  he  arrived  at  iP^gina, 
with  an  ovenvhelming  fleet  of  150  triremes,  and  proceeded  to  dcA-- 
asfjvta  Salamis  and  blockade  Piraeus.    At  the  same  time  the  Avhole 


131 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  XIIL 


Pcloponnesian  army  was  marched  into  Attica,  and  encamped  in 
the  precincts  of  the  Acadcmus,  at  the  very  gates  of  Athens.  Fam- 
ine soon  began  to  be  felt  "within  the  walls,  and  at  the  end  of  tlirec 
months  it  became  so  dreadful  that  the  Athenians  saw  themselves 
compelled  to  submit  to  the  terms  of  the  conqueror.  These  terms 
were  :  That  the  long  walls  and  the  fortifications  of  Pineus  should 
be  demolished ;  that  the  Athenians  should  give  up  all  their  for- 
eign possessions,  and  conline  themselves  to  their  own  territory ; 
that  they  should  surrender  all  their  ships  of  war ;  that  they  should 
readmit  all  their  exiles ;  and  that  they  should  become  allies  of 
Sparta. 

It  was  about  the  niMdlc  or  end  of  March,  b.C;  404,  that  Lysander 
sailed  into  Pirajus,  and  took  formal  possession  of  Athens ;  tlie  war, 
in  singular  conformity  with  the  prophecies  current  at  the  begin- 
ning of  it,  having  lasted  for  a  period  of  thrice  nine,  or  27  years. 
The  insolence  of  the  victors  added  another  blow  to  the  feelings 
of  the  conquered.  The  work  of  destruction,  at  which  Lysander 
presided,  was  converted  into  a  sort  of  festival.  Female  flute-play- 
ers and  wreathed  dancers  inaugurated  the  demolition  of  the  strong 
and  pryud  bulwarks  of  Athens;  and  as  the  massive  walls  fell  piece 
by  piece,  exclamations  arose  from  the  ranks  of  the  Peloponnesians 
tkat  freadom  had  at  length  begun  to  dawn  upon  Greece. 


Bust  of  Socriites. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

"t^E  THIRTY  TYRANTS,  AND  THE  DEATH  OF  BOCEATES, 

B.C.  404-399. 

The  fall  of  Athens  brought  back  a  host  of  exiles,  all  of  tbcra 
'^'^.  enemies  of  her  democratical  constitution.  Of  these  the  mosS 
t'istinguished  was  Critias,  a  man  of  wealth  and  family,  the  uncle 
of  Plato,  and  once  the  intimate  friend  of  Socrates,  distinguished 
both  for  his  literary  and  political  talents,  but  of  unmeasured  am- 
bition and  unscrupulous  conscience.  Critias  and  his  companions 
soon  found  a  party  with  which  they  could  co-operate ;  and,  sup- 
ported by  Lysander,  they  proposed  in  the  Assembly  that  a  com- 
mittee of  thirty  should  be  named  to  draw  ixp  laws  for  the  future 
government  of  the  city,  and  to  undertake  its  temporary  adminis- 
tration. Among  the  most  prominent  of  the  thirty  names  were 
those  of  Ci'itias  and  Theramenes.  The  proposal  was  of  course 
carried.  Lysander  himself  addressed  the  Assembly,  and  contempt- 
uously told  them  that  they  had  better  take  thought  for  their  per- 
sonal safety,  which  now  lay  at  his  mercy,  than  for  their  political 
constitution.  The  committee  thus  appointed  soon  obtained  the 
title  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  the  name  by  which  they  have  become 
known  in  all  subsequent  time.  After  naming  an  entirely  new 
Senate,  and  appointing  fresh  magistrates,  they  proceeded  to  ex- 
terminate their  most  obnoxious  opponents.  But  Critias,  and  tho 
more  violent  party  among  them,  still  called  for  more  blood ;  and, 
with  the  view  of  obtaining  it,  procured  a  Spartan  garrison,  under 
the  harmost  Callibius,  to  be  installed  in  the  Acropolis.     Besides 


13G  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIV. 

this  force  they  htul  an  ovfranized  band  of  assassins  at  their  disposal 
Blood  now  llowcd  on  all  sides.  I\Iany  of  the  leading  men  of 
Athens  fell,  others  took  to  flight. 

Thus  the  reign  of  terror  was  completely  established.  In  tho 
bosom  of  the  Thirty,  however,  there  was  a  party,  headed  by  Tlieram- 
enes,  who  disapproved  of  these  proceedings.  But  his  modera- 
tion cost  him  his  life.  One  day,  as  he  entered  the  Senate-house, 
Critias  rose  and  denounced  him  as  a  public  enemy,  and  ordered 
him  to  be  carried  olr  to  instant  death.  Upon  hearing  these  words 
Theramenes  sprang  for  refuge  to  the  altar  in  the  Senate-house ; 
but  he  was  dragged  away  by  Satyrus,  the  cruel  and  unscrupulous 
licad  of  the  "Eleven,"  a  body  of  oflicers  who  carried  into  execu- 
tion the  penal  sentence  of  the  law.  Jjcing  conveyed  to  prison,  he 
was  compelled  to  drink  the  fatal  hemlock.  The  constanc}'  of  his 
end  might  have  adorned  a  better  life.  After  swallowing  the  draught, 
he  jerked  on  the  floor  a  drop  which  remained  in  the  cup,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  game  called  cottabos,  exclaiming,  ''This  to 
the  health  of  the  ;/ent/e  Critias!" 

Alcibiadcs  had  been  included  by  the  Thirty  in  the  list  of  exiles ; 
but  the  fate  which  now  overtook  him  seems  to  have  sprung  from  the 
fears  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  or  j)crliaps  from  the  personal  hatred 
of  Agis.  After  the  battle  of  -ZEgospotami,  BharnaljazAis  permitted 
tlie  Athenian  exile  to  live  in  Phrygia,  and  assigned  him  a  revenue 
for  liis  maintenance.  But  a  despatch  came  out  from  Sparta  to 
Lysander,  directing  that  Alcibiadcs  should  be  put  to  death.  Ly- 
sandcr  commimicated  the  order  toPharnabazus,  who  arranged  for 
carrying  it  into  execution.  The  house  of  Alcibiadcs  Avas  surround- 
ed with  a  band  of  assassins,  and  set  on  fire.  He  rushed  out  with 
drawn  sword  upon  his  assailants,  who  shrank  from  the  attack,  but 
who  slew  him  from  a  distance  with  their  javelins  and  arrows. 
Timandra,  a  female  with  whom  he  lived,  j)erformed  towards  liis 
body  the  last  ofliccs  of  duty  and  iiifcction.  Thus  jierishcd  miser- 
ably, in  the  vigour  of  his  age,  one  of  the  most  remarkable,  but  not 
one  of  the  greatest,  characters  in  Grecian  history.  A\'ith  (lualities 
which,  jnoperly  applied,  might  liavc  rendered  him  the  greatest 
benefactor  of  Athens,  ho  contrived  to  attain  the  infamous  distinc- 
tion of  being  that  citizen  who  had  inilictcd  upon  her  the  most 
signal  amount  of  damage. 

Meantime  an  altered  state  of  feeling  was  sjjringingup  in  Greece. 
Athens  had  ceased  to  be  an  object  of  fear  or  jealousy,  and  those 
feelings  began  now  to  be  dirocti'd  towards  Sj>arta.  livsauderhad 
risen  to  a  height  of  unparnlleled  power.  He  was  in  a  manner 
idolized.  I'octs  showered  their  praises  on  him,  and  even  nltai'S 
were,  raised  in  his  honour  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks.     In  the  name  of 


B.C.  404.  THE  THIRTY  DEPOSED.  137 

Spfirta  lie  exercised  almost  uncontrolled  authority  in  the  cities  ]\(\ 
had  reduced,  including  Athens  itself.  But  it  was  soon  discovered 
that,  instead  of  the  freedom  promised  by  the  Spartans,  only  an- 
other empire  had  been  established,  whilst  Lysander  was  even 
meditating  to  extort  from  the  subject  cities  a  yearly  tribute  of  one 
thousand  talents.  And  all  these  oppressions  were  rendered  still 
more  intolerable  by  the  overweening  pride  and  harshness  of  Ly- 
Sanders  demeanour. 

Even  in  Sparta  itself  the  conduct  of  Lysander  was  beginning  to 
inspire  disgust  and  jealousy.  Pausanlas,  son  of  Plistoanax,  who 
was  now  king  with  Agis,  as  well  as  the  new  Ephors  appointed  in 
September,  u.c.  404,  disapproved  of  his  proceedings.  The  Thebans 
and  Corinthians  themselves  Avere  beginning  to  sympathize  with 
Athens,  and  to  regard  the  Thirty  as  mere  instruments  for  support- 
ing the  Spartan  dominion  ;  whilst  Sparta,  in  her  turn,  looked  upon 
them  as  the  tools  of  Lysander's  ambition.  IMany  of  the  Athenian 
exiles  had  found  refuge  in  Bceotia  ;  and  one  of  them,  Thrasybulus, 
with  the  aid  of  Ismenias  and  other  Theban  citizens,  starting  from 
Thebes  at  the  head  of  a  small  band  of  exiles,  seized  the  fortress 
of  Phyle,  in  the  passes  of  Mount  Parnes  and  on  the  direct  road  to 
Athens.  The  Thirty  marched  out  to  attack  Thrasybulus  at  the 
head  of  the  Lacedoemonian  garrisoH  and  a  strong  Athenian  force, 
but  their  attack  was  repulsed  with  considerable  loss. 

Sliortly  afterwards  Thrasybulus  marched  from  Phyle  to  Piraeus, 
which  was  now  an  open  town,  and  seized  upon  it  without  opposi- 
tion. When  the  whole  foi'ce  of  the  Thirty,  including  the  Lacedae- 
monians, marched  on  the  following  day  to  attack  him,  he  retired  to 
the  hill  of  Munychia,  the  citadel  of  Pirraus,  the  only  approach  to 
which  was  by  a  steep  ascent.  Here  he  drew  up  his  hoplites  in 
files  of  ten  deep,  j^osting  behind  them  his  slingers  and  dartmen. 
He  exhorted  his  men  to  stand  patiently  till  the  enemy  came  within 
reach  of  the  missiles.  At  the  first  discharge  the  assailing  column 
seemed  to  waver ;  and  Thrasybulus,  taking  advantage  of  their 
confusion,  charged  do^\^l  the  hill,  and  completely  routed  them, 
killing  seventy,  among  Avhom  was  Critias  himself.  The  loss  of 
their  leader  had  thrown  the  majority  into  the  hands  of  the  party 
formerly  led  by  Theramenes,  who  resolved  to  depose  the  Thirty 
and  constitute  a  new  oligarchy  of  Ten.  Some  of  the  Thirty  weie 
re-elected  into  this  body ;  but  the  more  violent  colleagues  of 
Critias  were  deposed,  and  retired  for  safety  to  Eleusis.  The  new 
government  of  the  Ten  sent  to  Sparta  to  solicit  further  aid  ;  and 
a  similar  application  was  made  at  the  same  time  from  the  section 
of  the  Thirty  at  Eleusis.  Their  request  was  complied  with  ;  and 
Lysander  once  more  entered  Athens  at  the  head  of  a  Lacedai- 


138  HISTOKY  OF  GKEECE.  Chap.  XIV. 

monian  force,  rortunatcly,  however,  the  jealousy  oftlie  Lacciloc- 
monians  towards  Lysander  led  tlicm  at  this  critical  juncture  to 
Bupersedc  him  in  the  command.  King  Pausanias  was  appointed 
to  conduct  an  army  into  Attica,  and  when  he  encamped  in  the 
Academus  he  was  joined  by  Lysander  and  his  forces.  It  was 
known  at  Athens  that  the  views  of  Pausanias  were  unfavourablo 
to  the  proceedings  of  Lysander  ;  and  the  presence  of  the  Spartan 
king  elicited  a  vehement  reaction  against  the  oligarchy,  which 
fear  had  hitherto  suppressed.  All  parties  sent  envoys  to  Sparta. 
'I  he  Ephors  and  the  Lacedaemonian  Assembly  referred  the  ques- 
tion to  a  committee  of  fifteen,  of  whom  Pausanias  was  one.  The 
decision  of  this  board  was :  That  the  exiles  in  Piraus  should  be 
readmitted  to  Athens,  and  that  there  should  be  an  amnesty  for  all 
that  had  passed,  except  as  regarded  the  Thirty  and  the  Ten. 

When  these  terms  were  settled  and  sworn  to,  the  Peloponne- 
sians  quitted  Attica ;  and  Thrasybulus  and  tlie  exiles,  marching  in 
solemn  procession  from  Pirajus  to  Athens,  ascended  to  the  Acrop- 
olis and  offered  up  a  solemn  sacrifice  and  thanksgiving.  An  as- 
sembly of  the  I'eople  was  then  held,  and,  after  Thrasybulus  had 
addressed  an  animated  reproof  to  the  oligarchical  party,  the  de- 
mocracy was  unanimously  restored.  This  imjiortant  counter- 
revolution took  i)lace  in  the  spring  of  403  B.C.  The  archons,  the 
senate  of  500,  the  public  assembly,  and  the  dicasteries,  seem  to 
have  been  reconstituted  in  the  same  form  as  before  the  capture  of 
the  city. 

Thus  was  terminated,  after  a  sway  of  eight  months,  tlie  despot- 
ism of  the  Thirty.  The  year  which  contained  their  rule  was  not 
named  after  the  archon,  but  was  termed  "the  vear  of  anarchv." 
Tlic  first  archon  drawn  after  their  fall  was  Euclides,  who  gave  his 
name  to  a  year  ever  afterwards  memorable  among  the  Athenians, 

For  the  next  few  years  the  only  memorable  event  in  the  history 
of  Athens  is  the  death  of  Socrates.  This  celebrated  ]ihilosophcr 
Was  l>orn  in  llic  year  40S  n.r.,  in  the  immediate  neighbourhciod 
Df  Athens.  His  father,  Soi)hroniscus,  was  a  sculptor,  and  Socrates 
was  brought  up  to,  and  for  some  time  ]iractised,  the  same  profes- 
Rion.  He  was  married  to  Xanthippi^,  by  whom  he  had  three  tons ; 
but  her  bad  tcm))cr  lias  rendered  her  name  jiroverbial  for  a  con- 
jugal scold.  His  iihysical  constitution  was  healthy,  robust,  and 
wonderfully  enduring.  Indillcrent  alike  to  heat  and  cokl,  the 
same  scanty  and  homely  clothing  sufficed  him  both  in  summer 
and  winter;  and  even  in  the  camjiaign  of  Potidaa,  amidst  the 
snoAvs  of  a  Thracian  \\  inter,  he  went  barefooted.  But,  though  tlnis 
gifted  with  strength  of  body  and  of  miiul,  he  was  far  from  being 
endoweil  with  jiersonal   beuuty.      His   thick   lijs,  Hut  nose,  and 


B.C.  399,       CONDEMNATION  OF  SOCRATES.  133 

prominent  eyes  gave  him  the  appearance  of  a  Silenus  or  satyr, 
lie  served  with  credit  as  a  hoplite  at  FoticJiisa  (b.c.  432);  Dcliiim 
(b.c.  424),  and  Amphipolis  (i;.c.  422);  but  it  was  not  till  late  in 
life,  in  the  year  40G  b.c,  that  he  filled  any  political  office.  He 
was  one  of  the  Prytancs  when,  after  the  battle  of  ArginusiC,  Callix- 
cnus  submitted  his  proposition  respecting  the  six  generals  to  the 
public  Assembly,  and  his  refusal  on  that  occasion  to  put  an  uncon- 
stitutional question  to  the  vote  has  been  already  recorded.  lis 
had  a  strong  persuasion  that  he  was  intrusted  with  a  divine  mis- 
sion, and  he  believed  himself  to  be  attended  by  a  daimon,  or 
genius,  whose  admonitions  he  frequently  heard,  not,  however,  in 
the  way  of  excitement,  but  of  restraint.  He  never  wrote  anything, 
but  he  made  oral  instruction  the  great  business  of  his  life.  Early 
in  the  morning  he  frequented  the  public  walks,  the  gymnasia,  and 
the  schools ;  whence  he  adjourned  to  the  market-place  at  its  most 
crowded  hours,  and  thus  spent  the  Avhole  day  in  conversing  with 
young  and  old,  rich  and  poor — with  all,  in  short,  who  felt  any  desire 
for  his  instructions. 

That  a  reformer  and  destroyer,  like  Socrates,  of  ancient  preju- 
dices and  fallacies  which  passed  current  under  the  name  of  wisdom 
should  have  raised  up  a  host  of  enemies  is  only  what  might  be  ex- 
pected ;  but  in  his  case  this  feeling  was  increased  by  the  manner  in 
which  he  fulfilled  his  mission.  The  oracle  of  Delphi,  in  response 
to  a  question  put  by  his  friend  Chterephon,  had  affirmed  that  no 
man  was  wiser  than  Socrates.  No  one  was  more  perplexed  at 
this  declaration  than  Socrates  himself,  since  he  was  conscious  of 
possessing  no  wisdom  at  all.  However,  he  determined  to  test  the 
accuracy  of  the  priestess,  for,  though  he  had  little  wisdom,  others 
might  have  still  less.  He  therefore  selected  an  eminent  politician 
who  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  wdsdom,  and  soon  elicited,  by 
Ills  scrutinizing  method  of  cross-examination,  that  this  statesman's 
reputed  wisdom  was  no  wisdom  at  all.  But  of  this  he  could  not 
convince  the  subject  of  his  examination  ;  whence  Socrates  con- 
cluded that  he  was  wiser  than  this  politician,  inasmuch  as  he  was 
conscious  of  his  own  ignorance,  and  therefore  exempt  from  the 
error  of  believing  himself  wise  when  in  reality  he  was  not  so. 
The  same  experiment  was  tried  with  the  same  result  on  various 
classes  of  men — on  poets,  mechanics,  and  especially  on  the  rhetors 
and  sophists,  the  chief  of  all  the  pretenders  to  wisdom. 

The  first  indication  of  the  uni)opularity  which  he  had  incuried 
is  the  attack  made  upon  him  by  Aristophanes  in  the  "Clouds"  in 
the  year  423  n.c.  That  attack,  however,  seems  to  have  evaporated 
with  the  laugh,  and  for  many  years  Socrates  continued  his  teach- 
ing without  molestation.     It  was  not  till  b.c.  399  that  the  indict- 


no  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIV. 

merit  ^'as  preferred  against  him  whicli  cost  him  liis  life.  In  that 
year,  Melctus,  a  leather-seller,  seconded  by  Anytiis,  a  poet,  and 
Lycon,  a  rhetor,  accused  him  of  impiety  in  not  worshijiping  the 
gods  of  the  city,  and  in  introducing  new  deities,  and  also  of  being 
a  corrupter  of  youth.  With  respect  to  the  latter  charge,  his  former 
intimacy  with  Alcibiades  and  Critias  may  have  weighed  against 
him.  Socrates  made  no  preparations  for  his  defence,  and  seems, 
indeed,  not  to  have  desired  an  acquittal.  But,  although  lie  ad- 
dressed the  dicasts  in  a  bold  and  uncompromising  tone,  he  was 
condemned  only  by  a  small  majority  of  five  or  six  in  a  court  com- 
posed of  between  five  and  six  hundred  dicasts.  After  the  verdict 
Avas  pronounced,  he  was  entitled,  according  to  the  practice  of  tlie 
Athenian  courts,  to  make  some  counter-pro]iosition  in  jtlace  of  tbe 
penalty  of  death,  which  the  accusers  had  demanded,  and  if  he  had 
done  so  with  any  show  of  submission,  it  is  probable  that  the  sen- 
tence Avould  have  been  mitigated.  But  his  tone  after  the  verdict 
was  higher  than  before.  Instead  of  a  fine,  he  asserted  that  ho 
ought  to  be  maintained  in  the  PrytanCum  at  the  public  expense, 
as  a  public  benefactor.  This  seems  to  have  enraged  the  dicasts, 
and  he  was  condemned  to  death. 

It  happened  that  the  vessel  which  proceeded  to  Delos  on  the 
annual  deputation  to  the  festival  had  sailed  the  day  before  his 
condemnation,  and  during  its  absence  it  was  unlawful  to  put  any 
one  to  death.  Socrates  was  thus  kept  in  prison  during  thirty  days, 
till  the  return  of  the  vessel.  lie  spentthe  interval  in  j)hilosophica] 
conversations  with  his  friends.  Crito,  one  of  these,  arranged  a 
scheme  for  his  escape  by  bribing  the  jailer ;  but  Socrates,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  tone  of  liis  defence,  resolutely  refused 
to  save  his  life  by  a  breach  of  the  law.  His  last  discourse,  on  the 
day  of  his  death,  turned  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Witli  a 
firm  and  cheerful  countenance  he  drank  the  cup  of  hemlock  amidst 
his  sorrowing  and  weeping  friends.  His  last  words  were  addressed 
to  Crito:  "Crito,  we  owe  a  cock  to  JEsculajaus ;  discharge  the 
debt,  and  by  no  means  omit  it." 

Thus  perished  the  greatest  and  most  original  of  the  Grecian 
philosojihers,  whose  nnins])ired  wisdom  made  tlie  nearest  approach 
to  tlie  divine  morality  of  the  Gosi)el.  His  teaching  forms  an  epoch 
in  tlie  history  of  jihilosophy.  From  his  school  sjirang  Plato,  the 
founder  of  tlic  Academic  ])hilosop]iy ;  Euclides,  tlie  founder  of  the 
Megaric  school ;  Aristipi)us,  tlie  founder  of  the  Cyrcnaic  school,* 
and  many  other  jihilosophers  of  eminence. 


Iluins  of  Sardi.=. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  EXPEDITION  OF  THE  GREEKS  UNDER  CYRUS,  AND  RETREAT 
OF  THE  TEN  THOUSAND,  B.C.  401-400. 

The  assistance  which  Cyrus  l;ad  rendered  to  the  Lacedemo- 
nians in  the  Peloponnesiau  war  led  to  a  remarkable  episode  in 
Grecian  history.  This  was  the  celebrated  expedition  of  Cyrus 
against  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  in  v.hich  the  superiority  of  Gre- 
cian to  Asiatic  soldiers  was  so  strikingly  shown. 

The  death  of  Darius  Xothus,  king  of  Persia,  took  place  b.c.  404, 
shortly  before  the  battle  of  JEgospotami.  Cyrus,  who  was  present 
at  his  father's  death,  was  charged  by  Tissaphernes  with  plotting 
against  his  elder  brother  Artaxerxes,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
The  accusation  was  believed  by  Artaxerxes,  who  seized  his  brother, 
and  would  have  put  him  to  death  but  for  the  intercession  of  their 
mother,  Parysatis,  who  persuaded  him  not  only  to  spare  Cyrus. 
but  to  confirm  him  in  his  former  government.     Cyrus  returned  to 


142  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XV. 

Sarflis  burniiif^  v/ith  revenge,  and  fully  resolved  to  make  an  effort 
to  dethrone  his  brother. 

From  his  intercourse  with  the  Greeks  Cyrus  had  become  aware 
of  their  superiority  to  the  Asiatics,  and  of  their  usefulness  in  such 
an  enterprise  as  he  now  contemplated.  The  peace  which  followed 
the  capture  of  Athens  seemed  favourable  to  his  ])rojects.  Many 
Greeks,  bred  up  in  the  practice  of  war  during  the  long  struggle  be- 
tween that  city  and  Sparta,  were  now  deprived  of  their  employ- 
ment, whilst  many  more  had  been  driven  into  exile  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Spartan  oligai'chies  in  the  various  conquered  cities. 
Under  the  pretence  of  a  private  war  with  the  satrap  Tissapher- 
nes,  Cyrus  enlisted  large  numbers  of  them  in  his  service.  The 
Greek  in  whom  he  placed  most  confidence  was  Clearchus,  a  Lace- 
daemonian, and  formerly  harmost  of  Byzantium,  who  had  been 
condemned  to  death  by  the  Spartan  authorities  for  disobedience  to 
their  orders. 

It  w.as  not,  however,  till  the  beginning  of  the  year  n.c.  401  that 
the  enterprise  of  Cyrus  was  ripe  for  execution.  The  Greek  levies 
were  then  withdrawn  from  tlic  various  town  in  which  they  were  dis- 
tributed, and  concentrated  in  Sardis,  to  the  number  of  about  8000; 
and  in  JNIarch  or  April  of  this  year  Cyrus  marched  from  Sardis 
with  them,  and  with  an  army  of  100,000  Asiatics.  The  object  of 
the  expedition  was  proclaimed  to  bo  an  attack  upon  the  mount- 
ain-freebooters of  Pisidia ;  its  real  destination  was  a  secret  to  every 
one  except  Cyrus  himself  and  Clearchus.  iVmong  the  Greek  sol- 
diers was  Xenophon,  an  Athenian  knight,  to  whom  we  owe  a  nar- 
rative of  the  expedition.  He  went  as  a  volunteer,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  his  friend  Proxcnus,  a  Boeotian,  and  one  of  the  generals  of 
Cyrus. 

The  march  of  Cyrus  was  directed  through  Lydia  and  Phrygia. 
After  passing  Colosstv;  he  arrived  at  CcUcna?,  where  he  was  join- 
ed by  more  Greek  troops,  the  number  of  whom  now  amounted  to 
11,000  hoplites  and  2000  peltasts.  The  line  of  march,  which  had 
been  hitlierto  straight  upon  Pisidia,  was  now  directed  northwards. 
Cyrus  passed  in  succession  the  Phrygian  towns  of  Pclta\  Ceramon 
Agora,  the  Plain  of  Cayster,  Tliymbrium,  Tyria'um,  and  Iconium, 
the  last  city  in  Phrygia.  Thence  he  jn-oceeded  through  Lycaonia 
to  Dana,  and  crossed  RIount  Taurus  into  Cilicia. 

On  arriving  at  Tarsus,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Cilicia,  the  Greeks 
plainly  saw  that  they  had  been  deceived,  and  that  the  cxi)edition 
was  designed  against  the  Persian  king.  Seized  with  alarm  at  tho 
^ospcct  of  so  long  a  marcli,  they  sent  a  deputation  to  Cyrus  to  ask 
iim  what  his  real  intentions  were.  Cyrus  rcidied  that  his  design 
was  to  march  against  his  enemy,  Abrocomas,  satrap  of  Syria,  who 


^%^='.      ^  ^v^  ,i,n.*''yii=^^- «   (7    '/ill     ***„  "*. 


144  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XV. 

was  encamped  on  tlic  banks  of  tlie  Euijliratcs.  The  Greeks, 
tliougli  they  still  susi)CcteJ  a  delusion,  contented  themselves  with 
this  answer  in  tlie  faec  of  their  present  diiliculties,  especially  as 
Cyrus  ])romiscd  to  raise  tlieir  pay  from  one  Daric  to  one  Daric 
and  a  half  a  month.  The  whole  army  then  marched  forwards 
to  Issus,  the  last  town  in  Cilicia,  situated  on  the  gulf  of  the  Fame 
name.  Here  they  met  the  fleet,  which  brought  them  a  re-enforce- 
mcnt  of  1100  Greek  soldiers,  thus  raising  the  Grecian  force  to 
about  14,000  men. 

Abrocomas,  who  commanded  for  the  Great  King  in  Syria  and 
rhasnicia,  alarmed  at  the  rapid  })rogress  of  Cyrus,  fled  before  him 
with  all  his  army,  reported  as  300,000  strong,  abandoning  the  im- 
pregnable pass  situated  one  days'  march  from  Issus,  and  known 
as  the  Gates  of  Cilicia  and  Syria.  JMarching  in  safety  through 
this  j)ass,  the  army  next  reached  Myriandrus,  a  seaport  of  I'ha'ni- 
cia.  From  this  ])lacc  Cyrus  struck  oil" into  the  interior,  over  INIount 
Amanus.  Twelve  days'  march  brought  him  to  Thapsacus  on  the 
Euphrates,  where  for  the  first  time  he  formally  notified  to  the 
army  that  he  was  marching  to  Ijabylon  against  his  brother  Arta- 
xerxcs.  The  water  liap])encd  to  be  very  low,  scarcely  reaching  to 
the  breast ;  and  Abrocomas  made  no  attemjit  to  dis]uite  the  pas- 
sage. Tlic  army  now  entered  upon  the  desert,  where  the  Greeks 
were  struck  with  the  novel  sights  which  met  their  view,  and  at 
once  amused  and  exhausted  themselves  in  the  chase  of  the  wild 
ass  and  the  antelope,  or  in  the  vain  pursuit  of  the  scudding  ostrith. 
After  several  days  of  toilsome  march  the  army  at  length  reached 
Pylas,  the  entrance  into  the  cultivated  plains  of  Babylonia,  where 
they  halted  a  few  days  to  refresh  themselves. 

Soon  after  leaving  that  jilace  symptoms  became  perceptible  of 
a  vast  liostile  force  moving  in  their  front.  The  exaggerated  re- 
ports of  deserters  stated  it  at  1,200,000  men;  its  real  strength 
was  about  1)00,000.  In  a  characteristic  address,  Cyrus  exhorted 
the  Greeks  to  take  no  heed  of  the  multitiule  of  their  enemies; 
they  would  find  in  them,  he  aftirmed,  nothing  but  numbers  and 
noise,  and,  if  they  could  bring  themselves  to  despise  these,  they 
would  soon  find  of  what  wortiiless  stuft'  the  natives  were  com- 
posed. Tlie  army  then  marched  cautiously  fonvards,  in  order  of 
];attle,  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Eu])hratcs.  They  soon  came 
npon  a  Imge  trench,  30  feet  broad  and  18  deep,  which  Artaxcrxes 
had  caused  to  be  dug  across  the  i)lain  for  a  length  of  about  -i'J  En- 
glish miles,  reaching  from  the  Eu]>hratcs  to  the  wall  of  l^Icdia. 
Between  it  and  the  river  was  left  only  a  narrow  passage  about  20 
feet  broad ;  yet  Cyrus  and  his  army  fouiul  with  surprise  that  this 
pass  was  left  entirely  undefended.      This  circumstance   inspired 


B.C.  401.  BATTLE  OF  CUNAXA.  i45 

them  with  a  contempt  of  the -enemy,  and  induced  them  to  proceed 
in  careless  array  ;  but  on  the  next  day  but  one  after  passing  the 
trench,  on  arriving  at  a  place  called  Cunaxa,  they  were  surprised 
with  the  intelligence  that  Artaxcrxes  was  approaching  with  all  his 
forces.  Cyrus  immediately  drew  up  his  army  in  order  of  battle. 
The  Greeks  were  posted  on  the  right,  whilst  Cyrus  himself,  sur- 
rounded by  a  picked  body-guard  of  GOO  Persian  cuirassiers,  took  up 
his  station  in  the  centre.  When  the  enemy  was  about  half  a  m.ilc 
distant,  the  Greeks  charged  them  Avitli  the  usual  war-shout.  The 
Persians  did  not  await  their  onset,  but  turned  and  fled.  Tissa- 
phernes  and  his  cavalry  alone  offered  any  resistance ;  the  remain- 
der of  the  Persian  left  was  routed  without  a  blow.  As  Cyrus 
was  contemplating  the  easy  victory  of  the  Greeks,  his  followers 
surrounded  him,  and  already  saluted  him  with  the  title  of  king. 
But  the  centre  and  richt  of  Artaxerxes  still  remained  unbroken : 
and  that  monarch,  unaware  of  the  defeat  of  his  left  wing,  ordered 
the  right  to  wheel  and  encompass  the  army  of  Cyrus.  No  sooner 
did  Cyrus  perceive  this  movement  than  with  his  body-guard  he 
impetuously  charged  the  enemy's  centre,  where  Artaxerxes  him- 
self stood,  surrounded  with  GOOO  horse.  The  latter  were  routed 
and  dispersed,  and  were  followed  so  eagerly  by  the  guards  of  Cy- 
rus, that  he  was  left  almost  alone  with  the  select  few  called  his 
"Table  Companions."  In  this  situation  he  caught  sight  of  his 
brother  Artaxerxes,  whose  person  As^as  revealed  by  the  flight  of  his 
troops,  when,  maddened  at  once  by  rage  and  ambition,  he  shouted 
out,  "I  see  the  man  !"  and  rushed  at  him  with  his  handful  of  com- 
panions. Hurling  his  javelin  at  his  brother,  he  wounded  him  in 
the  breast,  but  was  himself  speedily  overborne  by  superior  num- 
bers and  slain  on  the  spot. 

Meanwhile  Clearchus  had  pursued  the  flying  enemy  upwards 
of  tliree  miles ;  but,  hearing  that  the  king's  troops  were  victorious 
on  the  left  and  centre,  he  retraced  his  steps,  again  routing  the  Per- 
sians who  endeavoured  to  intercept  him.  When  tlie  Greeks  re- 
gained their  camp  they  found  that  it  had  been  completely  plun- 
dered, and  were  consequently  obliged  to  go  supperless  to  rest.  It 
was  not  till  the  following  day  that  they  learned  the  deatli  of  Cy- 
rus ;  tidings  which  converted  their  triumph  into  sorrow  and  dis- 
may. They  were  desirous  that  Ariasus,  who  now  commanded  the 
army  of  Cyrus,  should  lay  claim  to  the  Persian  crown,  and  offered 
to  support  his  pretensions ;  but  Ariaeus  answered  that  the  Persian 
gi'andees  would  not  tolerate  such  a  claim ;  that  he  intended  im- 
mediately to  retreat ;  and  that,  if  tlie  Greeks  wished  to  accompany 
him,  they  must  join  him  during  the  following  night.  This  was 
accordingly  done ;  when  oaths  of  reciprocal  fidelity  were  inter- 

K 


14G  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XV. 

changed  between  the  Grecian  generals  and  Ariffius,  and  sanctified 
by  a  solemn  sacrifice. 

On  the  following  day  a  message  arrived  from  the  Peisian  kin^, 
with  a  proposal  to  treat  for  ])eacc  on  equal  terms.  Clearclius  v.i- 
fectod  to  treat  the  offer  with  great  iiidilference,  and  made  it  en 
opportunity  for  procuring  i)rovisions.  '-Tell  your  kiug,"  said  he 
to  the  envoys,  "tiiat  we  must  first  figlit ;  for  we  have  had  no 
breakfast,  nor  Avill  any  man  i)resume  to  talk  to  the  Greeks  about  a 
truce  without  first  providing  for  tliem  a  breakfast."  This  was 
agreed  to,  and  guides  were  sent  to  conduct  the  Greeks  to  some  ^ 
villages  where  they  might  obtain  food.  Here  they  received  a  visit 
from  Tissaphernes,  who  pretended  much  friendship  towards  them, 
and  said  that  he  liad  come  from  the  Great  King  to  inquire  the 
reason  of  their  expedition.  Clearchus  replied — what  was  indeed 
true  of  the  greater  part  of  tlie  army — that  they  had  not  come 
hither  with  any  design  to  attack  the  king,  but  had  been  enticed 
forwards  by  Cyrus  under  false  pretences  ;  that  their  only  desire  at 
present  was  to  return  home  ;  but  that,  if  any  obstacle  was  oflcrcd, 
they  were  prepared  to  rei)cl  hostilities.  In  a  day  or  two  Tissa- 
phernes returned,  and  witii  some  parade  stated  that  he  had  with 
great  difficulty  obtained  permission  /o  sai'e  the  Greek  army;  that 
he  was  ready  to  conduct  them  in  person  into  Greece ;  and  to  sup- 
ply them  with  provisions,  for  which,  however,  they  were  to  ]  ay. 
An  agreement  was  accordingly  entered  into  to  tliis  cficct,  and 
after  many  days'  delay  they  commenced  tlie  liomeward  march. 
After  marching  three  days  they  passed  through  the  wall  of  INIedia, 
which  was  100  feet  high  and  20  feet  broad.  Two  days  more 
brought  tliem  to  the  Tigris,  whicli  they  crossed  on  the  following 
morning  by  a  bridge  of  l)0ats.  They  then  marched  northward, 
arriving  in  four  days  at  the  River  riiyscus  and  a  large  city  calh-d 
Opis.  Six  days'  further  march  through  a  deserted  ])art  of  Media 
brought  them  to  some  villages  belonging  to  Queen  Parvsatis,  which, 
out  of  enmity  to  her  as  the  patron  of  Cyrus,  Tissajtherncs  aban- 
doned to  be  plundered  by  the  Greeks.  From  thence  they  jno- 
ceedjCd  in  five  days  to  tlie  River  Zabatns,  or  Greater  Zab,  having 
previously  crossed  the  Lesser  Zab,  which  Xenojtlion  neglects  to 
mention.  In  the  first  of  these  five  days  they  saw  on  the  oj)])osite 
Fide  of  the  Tigris  a  large  city  called  Cajua?,  the  inhabitants  of  whic'i 
brought  over  provisions  to  theni.  At  the  Gi-eater  Zab  they  halted 
three  days.  Mistrust,  and  even  slight  hostilities,  had  ]>ecn  already 
manifested  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians,  but  they  now  be- 
came so  serious  that  Clearchus  demanded  an  interview  with  Tissn- 
jdiernes.  The  latter  ]irotestcd  tlu^  groatcsf  fidelity  and  friend- 
ship towards  the  Greeks,  and  jjromisod  to  delivor  to  the  Greek 


B.C.  401.     RETREAT  OF  THE  GREEKS.         147 

generals,  on  the  following  day,  the  calumnifitors  who  had  set  tlio 
two  armies  at  variance.  But  when  Clearchus,  with  four  otlier 
generals,  acconi]mnied  by  some  lochages,  or  captains,  and  200  sol- 
diers, entered  the  Persian  camp  according  to  appointment,  tho 
captains  and  soldiers  were  immediately  cnt  down  ;  whilst  the  fire 
generals  were  seized,  put  into  irons,  and  sent  to  the  Persian  court. 
After  a  short  imprisonment,  four  of  them  were  beheaded ;  tlia 
fifth,  Menon,  who  pretended  that  he  had  betrayed  his  colleagues 
into  the  hands  of  Tissaphcrnes,  was  at  first  spared ;  but  after  a 
year's  detention  was  put  to  death  with  tortures. 

Apprehension  and  dismay  reigned  among  the  Greeks.  Tlieif 
situation  was,  indeed,  appalling.  They  were  considerably  mor# 
than  a  thousand  miles  from  home,  in  a  hostile  and  unknown  coun* 
try,  hemmed  in  on  nil  sides  by  impassable  rivers  and  motmtains, 
without  generals,  without  guides,  without  provisions.  Xenophoif 
was  the  lirst  to  rouse  the  captains  to  the  necessity  for  taking  im-- 
mediate  precautions.  Though  young,  he  possessed  as  an  Atheniai? 
citizen  some  claim  to  distinction  ;  and  his  animated  address  show- 
ed him  fitted  for  command.  He  was  saluted  general  on  the  spot; 
and  in  a  subsequent  assembly  was,  with  four  others,  formally  elect* 
cd  to  that  office. 

The  Greeks,  having  first  destroyed  theh'  superfluous  baggage, 
crossed  the  Greater  Zab,  and  pursued  their  march  on  the  othe! 
bank.  They  passed  by  tho  ruined  cities  of  Larissa  and  Mespila 
on  the  Tigris,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  ancient  Nineveh.  The 
march  from  INIespila  to  the  mountainous  country  of  the  Carduchi 
occupied  several  days,  in  which  the  Greeks  suffered  much  from 
the  attacks  of  the  enemy. 

Their  future  route  was  now  a  matter  of  serious  pei'plexity.  On 
rieir  left  lay  the  Tigris,  so  deep  that  they  could  not  fathom  it  with 
their  spears ;  while  in  their  front  rose  the  steep  and  lofty  mountains 
of  the  Carduchi,  which  came  so  near  the  river  as  hardly  to  leave 
a  passage  for  its  waters.  As  all  other  roads  seemed  barred,  they 
formed  the  resolution  of  striking  into  these  mountains,  on  the  far- 
ther side  of  v/liich  lay  Armenia,  where  both  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates  might  be  forded  near  their  sources.  After  a  difficult 
and  dangerous  march  of  seven  days,  during  which  their  sufferings 
v/ere  far  greater  than  any  they  had  experienced  from  the  Persians, 
the  army  at  length  emerged  into  Armenia.  It  was  now  the  month 
of  Decembei",  and  Armenia  was  cold  and  exposed,  being  a  table- 
land raised  high  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Whilst  halting  near 
Bomc  well-supplied  villages,  the  Greeks  were  overtaken  by  two 
deep  falls  of  snow,  which  almost  buried  them  in  their  open  biv- 
ouacs.    Hence  a  five  days'  march  brought  them  to  the  eastern 


148  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XV. 

branch  of  the  Euphrates.  Crossing  the  river,  they  proceeded  on 
the  other  side  of  it  over  plains  covered  with  a  deep  snow,  and  in 
the  face  of  a  biting  north  wind.  Here  many  of  the  slaves  and 
beasts  of  burthen,  and  even  a  few  of  the  soldiers,  fell  victims  to 
the  cold.  Some  had  their  feet  frostbitten  ;  some  were  blinded 
by  the  snow  ;  whilst  others,  exhausted  Avith  cold  and  hunger,  sunk 
down  and  died.  On  tlie  eighth  day  they  proceeded  on  their  way, 
ascending  the  banks  of  the  Phasis,  not  the  celebrated  river  of  that 
name,  but  probably  the  one  usually  called  Araxes. 

From  thence  they  fought  their  way  throngli  the  countiy  of  the 
Taochi  and  Chalybes.  They  next  reached  the  coiintry  of  the 
Scythini,  in  w'hose  territory  they  found  abundance  in  a  large  and 
populous  city  called  Gymnias.  The  chief  of  this  place  having 
engaged  to  conduct  them  within  sight  of  the  Euxine,  they  pro- 
ceeded for  five  days  under  his  guidance  ;  when,  after  ascending  a 
mountain,  the  sea  suddenly  burst  on  the  view  of  the  vanguard. 
The  men  proclaimed  their  joy  by  loud  shouts  of  "The  sea!  the 
sea !"  The  rest  of  the  army  hurried  to  the  summit,  and  gave  vent 
to  their  joy  and  exultation  in  tears  and  mutual  embraces.  A  few 
days'  march  through  the  country  of  the  IMacroncs  and  Colchians 
at  length  brought  them  to  the  objects  for  which  they  fiad  so  often 
pined,  and  which  many  at  one  time  had  never  hoped  to  see  again 
— a  Grecian  city  and  the  sea.  By  the  inhabitants  of  Trapezus,  or 
Trebizond,  on  the  Euxine,  where  they  had  now  arrived,  they  were 
hospitably  received,  and,  being  cantoned  in  some  Colchian  villages 
near  the  town,  refreshed  themselves  after  the  hardships  they  had 
undergone  by  a  repose  of  thirty  days. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  the  return  of  the  Ten  Thousand  was 
now  accomplished,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  trace  the  remainder  of 
their  route.  After  many  adventures  they  succeeded  in  reaching 
Byzantium,  and  tliey  subsequently  engaged  to  serve  the  Lacedaj- 
monians  in  a  war  wliich  Sparta  liad  just  declared  against  the 
satraps  Tissaphernes  and  riiarnabazus. 

In  the  spring  of  n.c  oO!>,  Thimbron,  the  Lacedaemonian  com- 
mander, arrived  at  Pergamus,  and  the  remainder  of  the  Ten  ThoxK 
sand  Greeks  became  incorporated  with  his  army.  Xenophon  now 
returned  to  Atliens,  wlicre  he  must  have  arrived  shortly  after  the 
execution  of  his  master  Socrates.  Disgusted  probably  by  that 
event,  lie  rejoined  his  old  comrades  in  Asia,  and  subsequently  re- 
turned to  Greece  aloni,^  with  Agcsilaus. 


A  Greek  \Viimor. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    SUPREMACY    OF    SPARTA,    B.C.    40i-371. 

After  the  fall  of  Athens  Sparta  stood  without  a  rival  in  Grofcse. 
In  the  various  cities  which  had  belonged  to  the  Athenian  empirG 
Lysander  established  an  oligarchical  Council  of  Ten,  called  a 
Decarchy  or  Decemvirate,  subject  to  the  control  of  a  Spartan  Har- 
inost  or  governor.  The  Decarchies,  however,  remained  only  a  short 
time  in  power,  since  the  Spartan  government  regarded  them  with 
jealousy  as  the  partisans  of  Lysander ;  but  harmosts  continued 
to  be  placed  in  every  state  subject  to  their  empire.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  harmosts  was  corrupt  and  oppressive ;  no  justice  could 
be  obtained  against  them  by  an  appeal  to  the  Spartan  authorities 
at  home  ;  and  the  Grecian  cities  soon  had  cause  to  regret  the  mild-- 
er  and  more  equitable  sway  of  Athens. 

On  the  death  of  Agis  in  b.c.  398,  his  half-brother  Agesilaug 
was  appointed  king,  to  the  exclusion  of  Leotychides,  the  son  of 
Agis.  This  was  mainly  effected  by  the  powerful  influence  of  Ly- 
sander, who  erroneously  considered  Agesilaus  to  be  of  a  yielding 
and  manageable  disposition,  and  hoped  by  a  skilful  use  of  those 
qualities  to  extend  his  own  influence,  and  under  the  name  of  an- 
other to  be  in  reality  king  himself. 

Agesilaus  was  now  forty  years  of  age,  and  esteemed  a  model  of 


r 


/50  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Cuap.  XVI. 

those  viitncs  more  peculiarly  deemed  Spartan.  lie  was  obedient 
to  the  constituted  authorities,  emulous  to  excel,  courageous,  ener- 
getic, capable  of  bearing  all  sorts  of  hardsliip  and  fatigue,  simj.'le 
and  frugal  in  his  mode  of  life.  To  these  severer  qualities  he  added 
the  po])uhxr  attractions  of  an  agreeable  countenance  and  jileasing 
address...  His  personal  defects  at  first  stood  in  the  way  of  his  pro- 
motion. He  was  not  only  low  in  stature,  but  also  lame  of  one 
leg ;  and  thorc  was  an  ancient  oracle  which  warned  tlie  Spartans 
to  beware  of  "  a  lame  reign."  The  ingenuity  of  Lysander,  assist- 
ed probably  by  the  popuhir  qualities  of  Agesilaus,  contrived  to 
overcome  this  objection  by  interpreting  a  lame  reign  to  mean  not 
any  bodily  defect  in  the  king,  but  the  reign  of  one  who  was  not  a 
genuine  descendant  of  Hercules.  Once  possessed  of  power,  -Age- 
silaus sujjplicd  any  defect  in  biis  title  by  the  prudence  and  j^olicy 
of  his  conduct ;  and,  by  the  marked  deference  which  lie  })aid  both 
to  the  Ephors  and  the  senators,  he  succeeded  in  gaining  fur  him- 
self more  real  power  than  had  been  enjoyed  by  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors. 

The  affairs  of  Asia  Minor  soon  began  to  draw  the  attention  of 
Agesilaus  to  that  quarter.  •  The  assistance  lent  to  Cyrus  by  the 
Spartans  was  no  secret  at  the  Persian  court ;  and  Tissajjlierncs, 
who  liad  been  rewarded  for  his  fidelity  with  the  satrapy  of  Cyrus 
in  addition  to  his  own,  no  sooner  returned  to  his  government  than 
he  attacked  the  Ionian  cities,  then  under  the  protection  of  8j  arta. 
A  considerable  Lacedtcmonian  force  under  Thimbron  was  de- 
spatched to  their  assistance,  ami  which,  as  related  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  was  joined  by  the  remnant  of  the  Greeks  who  had  served 
under  Cyrus.  Thimbron,  however,  ])roved  so  inefticicnt  a  com- 
mander, that  he  Avas  suspended  at  the  end  of  3'Ji.>  or  beginning  of 
398  B.C.,  and  Dercyllidas  appointed  in  his  place.  But,  though  at 
first  successful  against  Tharnabazus  in  ^olis,  Dercyllidas  was  sub- 
sequently surprised  in  Caria  in  such  an  unfavourable  position  that 
he  would  have  sutfered  severely  but  for  the  timidity  of  Tissai)her- 
nes,  Avho  was  afraid  to  venture  u])ou  an  action.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances an  armistice  was  agreed  to  for  the  purpose  of  treating 
for  a  peace  (397  u.c). 

Pharnabazus  availed  himself  of  this  armistice  to  make  active 
pre]iarati(<ns  for  a  renewal  of  the  war.  He  obtained  large  rc-cn- 
forcements  of  Tcrsian  troo])S,  and  began  to  organize  a  fleet  in 
X'hocnicia  and  Cilicia.  This  was  intiustcd  to  the  Athenian  ad- 
miral Conon,  of  whom  wc  now  first  hear  again  after  a  lapse  of 
seven  years  since  his  defeat  at-i'I'^gosi)otami.  After  that  ilisastrous 
battle  Conon  fled  with  nine  triremes  to  Cyprus,  where  he  was  no^f 
liring  under  the  protection  of  Evagoras,  prince  of  Salamis. 


B.C.  397.  WAR  IN  ASIA  MINOR.  151 

It  was  tho  news  of  these  extensive  preparations  that  induced 
AgesiUius,  on  the  suggestion  of  Lysander,  to  volunteer  his  services 
against  the  Persians.  He  proposed  to  take  with  him  only  30  full 
Spartan  citizens,  or  peers,  to  act  as  a  sort  of  council,  together  with 
2000  Neodamodes,  or  enfranchised  Helots,  and  GOOO  liojnites  of 
the  allies.  Lysander  intended  to  be  the  leader  of  the  30  Spartans, 
and  expected  through  them  to  be  the  virtual  commander  of  tbo 
expedition  of  which  Agesilaus  was  nominally  the  head. 

Since  the  time  of  Agamemnon  no  Grecian  -king  had  led  an 
army  into  Asia ;  and  Agesilaus  studiously  availed  himself  of  tho 
j)restige  of  that  precedent  in  order  to  attract  recruits  to  his  stand- 
ard. The  Spartan  kings  claimed  to  inherit  the  sceptre  of  Aga- 
memnon ;  and,  to  render  the  parallel  more  complete,  Agesilaus  pro- 
ceeded with  a  division  of  his  fleet  to  Aulis,  intending  there  to  im- 
itate the  memorable  sacrifice  of  the  Homeric  hero.  But  as  he  had 
neglected  to  ask  the  permission  of  the  Thebans,  and  conducted  the 
sacrifice  and  solemnities  by  means  of  his  own  prophets  and  min- 
isters, and  in  a  manner  at  variance  with  the  usual  rites  of  the 
temple,  the  Thebans  were  offended,  and  expelled  him  by  armed 
force — an  insult  which  he  never  forgave. 

It  was  in  396  b.c.  that  Agesilaus  arrived  at  Ephesus,  and  took 
the  command  in  Asia.  He  demanded  of  the  Persians  the  com- 
plete independence  of  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  ;  and,  in  order  that 
there  might  be  time  to  communicate  with  the  Persian  court,  the 
armistice  was  renewed  for  three  months.  During  this  interval  of 
repose,  Lysander,  by  his  arrogance  and  pretensions,  offended  both 
Agesilaus  and  the  Thirty  Spartans.  Agesilaus,  determined  to  up- 
hold his  dignity,  subjected  Lysander  to  so  many  humiliations  that 
he  was  at  last  fain  to  request  his  dismissal  from  Ephesus,  and  was 
accordingly  sent  to  the  Hellespont,  Avhere  he  did  good  service  to 
the  Spartan  interests. 

Meanwhile  Ti3sa])hernes,  having  received  large  re-enforcements, 
uent  a  message  to  Agesilaus  before  the  armistice  had  expired,  or- 
dering him  to  quit  Asia.  Agesilaus  immediately  made  prepara- 
tions as  if  he  would  attack  Tissaphernes  in  Caria ;  but,  having 
thus  put  the  enemy  on  a  false  scent,  he  suddenly  turned  nortli- 
wards  into  Phrygia,  the  satrapy  of  Pharnabazus,  and  marched 
without  opposition  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Dascylium,  the  res- 
idence of  the  satrap  himself.  Here,  however,  lie  was  repulsed  by 
the  Persian  cavalry.  He  now  proceeded  into  winter  quarters  at 
Ephesus,  where  he  employed  himself  in  orgaiiizing  a  body  of  cav- 
alry to  compete  with  the  Persians.  During  the  winter  the  arm" 
was  brought  into  excellent  condition  ;  and  Agesilaus  gaA^e  out  ear- 
ly in  the  spring  of  SOd  b.c.  that  he  should  march  direct  upon  Sar- 


152  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XVI. 

dis.  Tissaphcrncs,  suspectinpj  another  feint,  now  dispersed  his 
cavalry  in  the  plain  of  the  Maiander.  But  this  time  Agcsilaus 
marched  as  he  had  announced,  and  in  three  days  arrived  unop- 
posed on  the  banks  of  the  Tactolus,  before  the  Persian  cavalry 
could  be  recalled.  When  they  at  last  came  up,  the  ncwly-raiscd 
Grecian  horse,  assisted  by  the  peltasts,  and  some  of  the  younger 
and  more  active  hoi)lites,  soon  succeeded  in  putting  them  to  flight. 
Many  of  the  Persians  were  drowned  in  the  Pactolus,  and  their 
camp,  containing  much  booty  and  several  camels,  was  taken, 

Agesilaus  now  puslied  his  ravages  up  to  the  very  gates  of  Sar- 
dis,  the  residence  of  Tissaphenics.  But  tlie  career  of  that  timid 
and  treacherous  satrap  was  drawing  to  a  close.  The  queen-moth- 
er, Par}'satis,  who  had  succeeded  in  regaining  her  influence  over 
Artaxerxes,  caused  an  order  to  be  sent  down  from  Susa  for  his  ex- 
ecution ;  in  pursuance  of  wh-ich  he  was  seized  in  a  bath  at  Colos- 
sx,  and  beheaded.  Tithraustcs,  who  had  been  intrusted  with  the 
execution  of  this  order,  succeeded  Tissaphcrncs  in  the  satrapy,  and 
immediately  reopened  negotiations  with  Agcsilaus.  An  armistice 
of  six  months  was  concluded ;  and  meanwhile  Tithraustcs,  by  a 
subsidy  of  30  talents,  induced  Agcsilaus  to  move  out  of  his  satrapy 
into  that  of  Pharnabazus. 

During  this  march  into  Phrygia  Agcsilaus  received  a  new  com- 
mission from  home,  appointing  him  the  head  of  the  naval  as  well 
as  of  the  land  force — two  commands  never  before  united  in  a  sin- 
gle Spartan.  lie  named  his  brothc.r-in-law,  Pisander,  commander 
of  the  fleet.  But  in  the  following  year  (n.c.  394),  whilst  he  was 
preparing  an  expedition  on  a  grand  scale  into  the  interior  of  Asia 
Minor,  he  was  suddenly  recalled  home  to  avert  the  dangers  which 
threatenccl  his  native  country. 

The  jealousy  and  ill-will  with  which  the  newly-acquired  empire 
of  the  Spartans  was  regarded  by  the  other  Grecian  states  had  not 
escaped  the  notice  of  the  Persians ;  and  Avhen  Tithraustcs  suc- 
ceeded to  the  satrapy  of  Tissaphemes,  he  resolved  to  avail  liimself 
of  this  feeling  by  exciting  a  war  against  Sparta  in  the  heart  of 
Greece  itself.  With  this  view  he  despatched  one  Timocrates,  a 
Rhodian,  to  the  leading  Grecian  cities  which  appeared  liostile  t« 
Sparta,  carrying  with  him  a  sum  of  50  talents  to  be  distributed 
among  the  chief  men  in  each,  for  tlie  purpose  of  bringing  them 
over  to  tl^e  views  of  Persia.  Timocrates  was  successful  in  Thebes, 
Corinth,  and  Argos  ;  but  he  appears  not  to  have  visited  Athens. 

Hostilities  were  at  first  confined  (o  Sparta  and  Thebes.  A  quar- 
rel having  arisen  between  the  Opuntian  Locrians  and  thcPhocians 
regarding  a  strip  of  border  hind,  the  former  ])eoj)lc  appealed  to  the 
Thebans,  who  invaded  I'hocis.     The  Phocians,  on  their  side,  in- 


B.C.  394.  DEATH  OF  LYSANDEU.  153 

voked  the  aid  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  who,  ehxted  at  the  prosper' 
ous  state  of  their  affairs  in  Asia,  and  moreover  desirous  of  aveng- 
ing the  affronts  they  had  received  from  the  Thebans,  readily  list- 
ened to  the  appeal,  Lysander,  who  took  an  active  part  in  pro- 
moting the  war,  was  directed  to  attack  the  town  of  Haliartiis  ;  and 
it  was  arranged  that  King  Pausanias  sliould  join  him  on  a  fixed 
day  under  the  walls  of  that  town,  with  the  main  body  of  the  Lace- 
daemonians and  their  Peloponnesian  allies. 

Notliing  could  more  strikingly  denote  the  altered  state  of  feel- 
ing in  Greece  than  the  request  for  assistance  which  the  Thebans, 
thus  menaced,  made  to  their  ancient  enemies  and  rivals  the 
Athenians.  Nor  were  the  Athenians  backward  in  responding  to 
the  appeal.  Lysander  arrived  at  Haliartus  before  Pausanias. 
Here,  in  a  sally  made  by  the  citizens,  opportunely  supported  by 
the  unexpected  arrival  of  a  body  of  Thebans,  the  army  of  Lysander 
was  routed,  and  himself  slain.  His  troops  disbanded  and  dispersed 
themselves  in  the  night-time.  Thus,  when  Pausanias  at  last  came 
up,  he  found  no  army  to  unite  with ;  and  as  an  imposing  Athenian 
force  had  arrived,  he  now,  with  the  advice  of  his  council,  took  the 
humiliating  step — always  deemed  a  confession  of  inferiority — of 
requesting  a  truce  in  order  to  bury  the  dead  who  had  fallen  in  the 
preceding  battle.  Even  this,  however,  the  Thebans  would  not 
grant  except  on  the  condition  that  the  Lacedemonians  should  im- 
mediately quit  thel''  territory.  With  these  terms  Pausanias  was 
forced  to  comply;  and,  after  duly  interring  the  bodies  of  Lysander 
and  his  fallen  comrades,  the  Lacedaemonians  dejectedly  pursued 
their  homeward  march.  Pausanias,  afraid  to  face  the  public  in- 
dignation of  the  Spartans,  took  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Athena 
Alea  at  Tegea ;  and  being  condemned  to  death  in  his  absence, 
only  escaped  that  fate  by  remaining  in  the  sanctuary.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Agesipolis. 

The  enemies  of  Sparta  took  fresh  courage  from  this  disaster  to 
her  arms.  Athens,  Corinth,  and  Argos  now  formed  with  Thebes 
a  solemn  alliance  against  her.  The  league  was  soon  joined  by 
the  Euboeans,  the  Acarnanians,  and  other  Grecian  states.  In  the 
spring  of  394:  B.C.  the  allies  assembled  at  Corinth,  and  the  war, 
which  had  been  hitherto  regarded  as  merely  Boeotian,  was  now 
called  the  Corinthian,  by  which  name  it  is  known  in  history. 
This  threatening  aspect  of  affairs  determined  the  Ephors  to*recall 
Agesilaus,  as  already  related. 

The  allies  were  soon  in  a  condition  to  take  the  field  with  a  force 
of  24,000  hoplites,  of  whom  one  fourth  were  Athenians,  together 
with  a  considerable  body  of  light  troops  and  cavalry.  The  Lace- 
daemonians had  also  made  the  most  active  preparations.     In  the 


154  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Cjiap.  XVL 

neiglibourhood  of  Corintli  a  battle  was  foiipht,  in  which  tlie  Lace- 
d:omonians  gained  tlic  victorv,  though  tlieir  allied  troops  were  ])ut 
to  the  rout.  This  battle,  called  tlic  battle  of  Corinth,  was  fought 
in  July,  394:  ]5.c. 

Agesilaus,  who  had  relinquished  with  a  heavy  heart  his  project- 
ed expedition  into  Asia,  was  now  on  his  homeward  march.  By 
the  promise  of  rewaids  he  had  persuaded  the  bravest  and  most 
efficient  soldiers  in  his  army  to  accompany  him,  amongst  wliom 
were  many  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  with  Xenophon  at  their  licad. 
The  route  of  Agesilaus  was  much  the  same  as  the  one  furmerly 
traversed  by  Xerxes,  and  the  camels  whicli  accompanied  the  army 
gave  it  somewhat  of  an  Oriental  aspect.  At  Amphipolis  he  re- 
ceived the  news  of  the  victory  of  Corinth  ;  but  his  heart  was  so 
full  of  schemes  against  Persia,  that  the  feeling  Avhich  it  awakened 
in  his  bosom  was  rather  one  of  regret  that  so  many  Greeks  had 
fallen,  whose  united  cilbrts  might  have  emancipated  Asia  Minor, 
than  of  joy  at  the  success  of  his  countrymen.  Having  forced  his 
way  through  a  desultory,  opposition  olfered  by  the  Thessalian 
cavalry,  he  crossed  Mount  Othrys,  and  marched  unopposed  the 
rest  of  the  way  through  the  Straits  of  Thcrmo])yla3  to  the  fron- 
tiers of  Phocis  and  Baotia.  Here  tlie  evil  tidings  reached  him 
of  the  defeat  and  death  of  his  brother-in-law  Pisander,  in  a  great 
sea-fight  olf  Cnidus  in  Caria  (August,  394  B.C.).  Conon,  with  the 
assistance  of  Pharnabazus,  had  succeeded  in  raising  a  powerful 
liect,  i)artly  Pha>nician  and  ])aitly  Grecian,  with  which  he  cither 
destroyed  or  captured  more  than  half  of  the  Laccdivmonian  fleet. 
Agesilaus,  fearing  the  impression  which  such  sad  news  might  pro- 
duce iipon  his  men,  gave  out  tliat  the  Lacedamionian  fleet  had 
gained  a  victory ;  and,  having  oftercd  sacriticc  as  if  for  a  victory, 
he  ordered  an  advance. 

Agesilaus  soon  came  up  with  the  confederate  army,  which  had 
prepared  to  opi)Ose  him  in  the  i)lain  of  CoronCa.  The  Thcbans 
succeeded  in  driving  in  the  Orchomenians,  who  formed  the  left 
wing  of  the  army  of  Agesilaus,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  baggage 
in  tl)c  rear.  But  on  the  remainder  of  the  line  Agesilaus  was  vic- 
torious, and  the  Thcbans  now  saw  themselves  cut  oil'  from  their 
companions,  who  had  retreated  and  taken  up  a  position  on  Blount 
Helicon.  Facing  about  and  forming  in  deep  and  comj)act  order, 
the  Thcbans  sought  to  rejoin  the  main  body,  but  they  v>-erc  op- 
posed by  Agesilaus  and  his  troops.  The  shock  of  the  conflicting 
masses  which  ensued  was  one  of  the  most  tciTible  recorded  in  tho 
flnnals  of  Grecian  warfare.  The  shields  of  the  foremost  ranka 
%cve  shattered,  and  their  spears  broken,  so  that  daggers  became 
the  only  available  arm.      Agesilaus,  w^^o  was  in  the  front  rankiv 


r 

o 

C 

Ti- 
er 


o 

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a 
a- 


a 


o 

B 


O 

o 


B.C.  394.  BATTLE  OF  CORONEA.  157 

unequal  by  his  size  and  strength  to  sustain  so  furious  an  onset, 
was  flung  down,  trodden  on,  and  covered  with  wounds ;  but  the 
devoted  courage  of  the  50  Spartans  forming  his  body-guard  reocued 
him  from  death.  The  Thebans  finally  forced  their  way  through, 
but  not  v/ithout  severe  loss.  The  victory  of  Agesilaus  was  no? 
very  decisive ;  but  the  Thebans  tacitly  acknowledged  their  defeat 
by  soliciting  the  customary  truce  for  the  burial  of  their  dead, 

Agesilaus,  on  his  arrival  at  Sparta,  was  received  with  the  most 
lively  demonstrations  of  gi'atitude  and  esteem,  and  became  hence- 
forward the  sole  director  of  Spartan  policy. 

Thus,  in  less  than  two  months,  the  Lacedaimonians  had  fouglit 
two  battles  on  land  and  one  at  sea ;  namely,  those  of  Corinth,  Cor- 
onea,  and  Cnidus.  But,  though  they  had  been  victorious  in  the 
land  engagements,  they  were  so  little  decisive  as  to  lead  to  no  im- 
portant result,  whilst  their  defeat  at  Cnidus  produced  the  most 
disastrous  consequences.  It  was  followed  by  the  loss  of  nearly  all 
their  maritime  empire,  even  faster  than  they  had  acquired  it  after 
the  battle  of  ^Egospotami ;  for,  as  Conon  and  Pharnabazus  sailed 
with  their  victorious  fleet  from  island  to  island  and  from  port  to 
port,  their  approach  was  everywhere  the  signal  for  the  flight  or 
expulsion  of  the  Spartan  hai'mosts. 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year  (b.c.  393)  Conon  and  Phar- 
nabazus sailed  to  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  then  occupied  as  a  cen- 
tral post  by  the  allies.  The  appearance  of  a  Persian  fleet  in  the 
Saronic  Gulf  was  a  strange  sight  to  Grecian  eyes,  and  one  which 
might  have  served  as  a  severe  comment  on  tlie  effect  of  their  sui- 
cidal wars.  Conon  dexterously  availed  himself  of  the  hatred  of 
Pharnabazus  towards  Sparta  to  procure  a  boon  for  his  native  city. 
As  the  satrap  was  on  the  point  of  proceeding  homewards,  Conon 
obtained  leave  to  employ  the  seamen  in  rebuilding  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Pirajus  and  the  long  walls  of  Athens.  Pharnabazus  also 
granted  a  large  sum  for  the  same  purpose ;  and  Conon  had  thus 
the  gioiy  of  appearing  like  a  second  Themistocles,  the  deliverer 
find  restorer  of  his  country.  Before  the  end  of  autumn  the  walls 
were  rebuilt.  Having  thus,  as  it  were,  founded  Athens  a  second 
time,  Conon  sailed  to  the  islands  to  lay  again  the  foundations  of 
an  Athenian  maritime  empire. 

During  the  remainder  of  this  and  the  whole  of  the  followmg 
year  (b.c.  392)  the  war  was  carried  on  in  the  Corinthian  terri- 
tory. 

One  of  the  most  important  events  at  this  time  was  the  destmc- 
tion  of  a  whole  Lacedicmonian  mora,  or  battalion,  by  the  light- 
armed  mercenaries  of  the  Athenian  Iphicrates.  For  the  preced- 
ing two  years  Iphicrates  had  commanded  a  body  of  mercenaries. 


158  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE,  Chap.  XVL 

consistinf^  of  pcltasts,*  wlio  had  been  first  organized  liy  Conon 
after  rebuililing  the  walls  of  Athens.  For  tliis  force  Iphicratcs 
introduced  those  improved  arms  and  tactics  which  form  an  cjiocli 
in  the  Grecian  art  of  war.  His  oljcct  was  to  combine,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  peculiar  advantages  of  the  hoplitcs  and  light-armed 
troops.  He  substituted  a  linen  corslet  for  the  coat  of  mail  worn 
by  the  hojjlites,  and  lessened  the  shield,  while  he  rendered  the 
light  javelin  and  short  sword  of  the  peltasts  more  effective  by 
lengthening  them  both  one  half.  These  troops  soon  proved  very 
effective.  After  gaining  several  victories  he  ventured  to  make  a 
sally  from  Corinth,  and  attacked  a  Laccdremonian  mora  in  liank 
and  rear.  So  many  f^U  under  the  darts  and  arrows  of  the  peltasts 
tliat  tho  Lacedaemonian  captain  called  a  halt,  and  ordered  the 
youngest  and  most  active  of  his  hoplitcs  to  rush  funvard  and  drive 
olFtho  assailants.  But  their  heavy  arms  rendered  tliom  quite  im- 
cqual  to  such  a  mode  of  fighting;  nor  did  the  Lacedaemonian  cav- 
alry, which  now  came  up,  but  which  acted  with  very  little  vigour 
and  courage,  produce  any  better  effect.  At  length  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians succeeded  in  reaching  an  eminence,  where  they  endeavoured 
to  make  a  stand ;  but  at  this  moment  Callias  arrived  Avith  some 
Athenian  hoplitcs  from  Corinth,  whereupon  the  already  disheart- 
ened Lacedaimonians  fled  and  broke  in  confusion,  pursued  by  the 
pcltasts,  Avho  committed  such  havoc,  chasing  and  killing  some  of 
tlicm  even  in  the  sea,  that  but  very  few  of  the  whole  body  succeed- 
ed in  clFiJcting  their  escape. 

Tiic  maritime  v,ar  was  prosecuted  with  vigour.  Thrasybulus, 
and  after  his  death  Ii)lHcrates,  were  successful  upon  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  made  the  Athenians  agtiin  masters  of  the  Helles- 
pont. Under  these  circumstances,  the  Laceda;monians  resolved  to 
si)arc  no  eiforts  to  regain  the  good  will  of  the  Persians.  Antal- 
cidas,  the  Lacedaemonian  commander  on  the  Asiatic  coast,  entered 
into  negotiations  with  Tiribazus,  who  had  succeeded  Tithraustes  in 
the  satrapy  of  Jonia,  in  order  to  bring  about  a  general  ])eace  imder 
the  mediation  of  Persia.  Conducted  ])y  Tiriba/.us,  Antalcidas  re- 
paired to  the  Persian  court,  and  prevailed  on  tlie  Persian  monarch 
both  to  adoi)t  tiie  peace,  and  to  declare  war  against  those  who 
sliould  reject  it.  Antalcidas  and  Tiribazus  returned  to  the  coast.s 
of  Asia  Minor  not  only  armed  with  these  powers,  but  provided 
with  an  amjile  force  to  carry  them  into  execution.  In  addition 
to  tho  entire  fleet  of  Persia,  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  had  jilaccd  20 
triremes  at  tlic  service  of  the  Lacedaemonians;  and  Antalcidas 
now  sailed  witli  a  large  fleet  to  the  llellesjiont,  where  Iphicratcs 
and  the  Athenians  were  still  jiredominant.  The  overwhelming 
•  So  culled  from  the  poUn,(ir  kind  of  Hhieltl  which  they  carried. 


B.C.  387.  PEACE  OF  ANTALCIDAS.  159 

force  of  Antalcidas,  the  largest  that  liacl  been  seen  in  the  Helles- 
pont since  the  battle  of  ^gospotami,  rendered  all  resistance  hope- 
less. The  sujjplies  of  corn  from  the  Euxine  no  longer  found  thcif 
way  to  Athens ;  and  the  Athenians,  depressed  at  once  botli.  hv 
what  they  felt  and  by  what  they  anticipated,  began  to  long  for 
peace.  As  without  the  assistance  of  Athens  it  seemed  hopelesa 
for  the  other  allies  to  struggle  against  Sparta,  all  Greece  was  in^ 
clined  to  listen  to  an  accommodation. 

Under  these  circumstances  deputies  from  the  Grecian  statea 
were  summoned  to  meet  Tiribazus ;  Avho,  after  exhibiting  to  them 
the  royal  seal  of  Persia,  read  to  them  the  follov/ing  terms  of  a 
peace:  "King  Artaxerxes  thinks  it  just  that  the  cities  in  Asia 
und  the  islands  of  Clazomenaj  and  Cyprus  should  belong  to  him. 
IIo  also  thinks  it  just  to  leave  all  the  other  Grecian  cities,  both 
small  and  great,  independent — except  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scy- 
ros,  which  arc  to  belong  to  Athens,  as  of  old.  Should  any  jiarties 
refuse  to  accept  this  peace,  I  will  make  war  upon  them,  along  with 
those  who  are  of  the  same  mind,  both  by  land  and  sea,  with  ships 
and  with  money."     All  the  Grecian  states  accepted  these  terms. 

This  disgraceful  peace,  called  the  Peace  of  A>.talcidas,  vaxs 
concluded  in  the  year  b.c.  387.  By  it  Greece  seemed  prostrated 
at  the  feet  of  the  barbarians  ;  for  its  very  terms,  engraven  on  stone 
and  set  up  in  the  sanctuaries  of  Greece,  recognized  the  Persian  king 
as  the  arbiter  of  her  destinies.  Although  Athens  cannot  be  en- 
tirely exonerated  from  the  blame  of  this  transaction,  the  chief 
guilt  rests  upon  Sparta,  whose  designs  were  far  deeper  and  more 
hypocritical  than  they  appeared.  Under  the  specious  pretext  of 
securing  the  independence  of  tiie  Grecian  cities,  her  only  object 
was  to  break  up  the  confederacies  under  Athens  and  Thebes,  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  Persia,  to  pave  the  way  for  her  own  absolute 
dominion  in  Greece. 

No  sooner  was  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  concluded  than  Sparta, 
directed  by  Agesilaus,  the  ever-active  enemy  of  Thebes,  exerted 
all  her  power  to  weaken  that  city.  She  began  by  proclaiming  the 
independence  of  the  various  Boeotian  cities,  and  by  organizing  in 
each  a  local  oligarchy,  adverse  to  Thebes  and  favourable  to  herself, ' 
Lacedaemonian  garrisons  were  placed  in  Orchomenus  and  Thespiaj, 
and  Platsea  was  restored  in  order  to  annoy  and  weaken  Thebes. 
Shortly  aftei'wards  the  Lacedaimonians  obtained  possession  of 
Thebes  itself  by  an  act  of  shameful  treachery.  They  had  de- 
clared war  against  Olynthus,  a  town  situated  at  the  nead  of  tliQ 
Toronaic  Gulf,  in  the  peninsula  of  the  jNIacedonian  Chalcidic^,  the 
head  of  a  powerful  confederation,  which  included  several  of  th( 
adjacent  Grecian  cities.     The  Thebans  had  entered  into  an  alii 


ICO  HISTORY  OF  GHEECE.  Chap.  XVL 

ance  •w'th  Olynthus,  and  had  forbidden  any  of  their  citizens  to  join 
the  LacediL'inunian  anny  destined  to  act  against  it ;  but  tliey  were 
not  strong  enough  to  prevent  its  marching  through  their  territory. 
Phccbidas,  who  was  conducting  a  Lacedaemonian  force  against 
Olynthus,  halted  on  his  way  through  Bccotia  not  far  from  Thebes, 
where  ho  was  visited  by  Leontiades,  one  of  the  polemarchs  of  the 
city,  and  two  or  three  other  leaders  of  the  Lacedaemonian  party  in 
Thebes.  It  happened  that  the  festival  of  the  Thesmophoria  was  on 
the  point  of  being  celebrated,  during  which  the  Cadmea,  or  The- 
ban  Acropolis,  was  given  up  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  women. 
The  Oj^porlunity  seemed  favourable  for  a  surprise;  and  Leontiades 
and  Phoebidas  concerted  a  jjlot  to  seize  it.  Whilst  the  festival 
was  celebrating,  rhabidas  pretended  to  resume  his  march,  but 
only  made  a  circuit  round  the  city  walls;  whilst  Leontiades, 
stealing  out  of  the  senate,  mounted  his  horse,  and,  joining  the  Lac- 
edaemonian troops,  conducted  them  towards  the  Cadmea.  It  was 
a  sultrv  summer's  afternoon,  so  that  the  verv  streets  were  desert- 
ed ;  and  Phccbidas,  without  encountering  any  opposition,  seized 
the  citadel  and  all  the  women  in  it,  to  serve  as  hostages  for  the 
quiet  submission  of  the  Thebans  (n.c.  382).  This  treacherous  act 
during  a  period  of  profound  peace  awakened  the  liveliest  indigna- 
tion throughout  Greece.  Sparta  herself  could  not  venture  to  justi- 
fy it  openly,  and  Phabidas  was  made  the  scape-goat  of  her  ati'cct- 
ed  displeasure.  As  a  sort  of  atonement  to  the  violated  feeling  of 
Greece,  he  was  censured,  fined,  and  dismissed.  But  that  this  was 
a  mere  farce  is  evident  from  the  fact  of  his  subsequent  restoration 
to  command ;  and,  however  indignant  the  Lacedaemonians  alfect- 
cd  to  appear  at  the  act  of  Pha^bidas,  they  took  care  to  reap  the 
fruits  of  it  by  retaining  their  garrison  in  the  Cadmea. 

The  once  haughty  Thebes  was  no\y  enrolled  a  member  of  tho 
Lacedaemonian  alliance,  and  furnished  her  contingent — the  grate- 
ful olfering  of  the  new  Theban  government — for  the  war  which 
Sparta  was  prosecuting  with  redoubled  vigour  against  Olynthus- 
This  city  was  taken  by  the  Lacediemonians  in  n.c,  379  ;  tlie  Olyn- 
thian  confederacy  was  dissolved  ;  the  Grecian  cities  belonging  to 
it  were  compelled  to  join  the  Lacedainonian  alliance;  whilst  tho 
maritime  towns  of  IVIaccdonia  were  reduced  under  the  dominion 
of  Amyntas,  the  king  of  Macedon. 

Tiie  power  of  Sjiarta  on  land  had  now  attained  its  greatest 
height.  Iler  inii)0))ularity  in  Greece  was  commensurate  with  tho 
extent  of  her  harshly  administered  dominion.  She  was  leagued 
on  all  sides  with  the  enemies  of  Grecian  freedom — with  the  Pei*- 
sians,  with  Amyntas  of  Macedon,  and  with  Dionysius  of  Syracuse. 
Hilt  she  had  now  reached  the  turning-point  of  her  fortunes,  and 


B.C.  879,  LIBERATION  OF  THEBES.  161 

her  successes,  wliicli  had  been  earned  without  scruple,  -were  soon 
to  bo  followed  by  misfortunes  and  disgrace.  The  first  blow  came 
from  Thebes,  where  she  had  perpetrated  her  most  signal  injustice. 

That  city  had  been  for  three  years  in  the  hands  of  Leontiades 
and  tlie  Spartan  party.  During  this  time  great  discontent  had 
grown  lip  among  the  resident  citizens ;  and  there  was  also  the 
party  of  exasperated  exiles,  who  had  taken  refuge  at  Athens. 
Among  these  exiles  was  Felopidas,  a  young  man  of  birth  and  for- 
tune, who  had  already  distinguished  himself  by  his  disinterested 
])atriotism  and  ardent  character.  He  now  took  the  lead  in  the 
plans  formed  for  the  liberation  of  his  country,  and  was  the  heart 
and  soul  of  the  enterprise.  His  warm  and  generous  heart  was 
irresistibly  attracted  by  everything  great  and  noble,  and  hence  he 
was  led  to  form  a  close  and  intimate  friendship  with  Epaminon- 
das,  who  was  several  years  older  than  himself,  and  of  a  still  loftier 
character.  Their  fiiendsliip  is  said  to  have  originated  in  a  cam- 
paign in  which  they  served  together,  Avhen,  Pelopidas  having  fall- 
en in  battle  apparently  dead,  Epaminondas  protected  his  body  at 
the  imminent  risk  of  his  own  life.  Pelopidas  afterv/ards  endeaA*- 
oured  to  persuade  Epaminondas  to  share  liis  riches  with  him  ;  and 
when  he  did  not  succeed,  he  resolved  to  live  on  the  same  frugal 
fare  as  his  great  friend.  A  secret  correspondence  was  opened 
with  his  friends  at  Thebes,  the  chief  of  whom  were  Phyllidas,  sec- 
retary to  the  polemarchs,  anu  Charon.  The  dominant  faction, 
besides  the  advantage  of  the  actual  possession  of  power,  was  sup- 
l)orced  by  a  garrison  of  1500  Lacedaemonians.  The  enterprise, 
therefore,  was  one  of  considerable  difficulty  and  danger.  In  the 
execution  of  it  Phyllidas  took  a  leading  part.  It  was  arranged 
that  he  should  give  a  supper  to  Archias  and  Philippus,  the  two 
polemarchs,  and  after  they  had  partaken  freely  of  Avine  the  con- 
spirators were  to  be  introduced,  disguised  as  women,  and  to  com- 
plete their  work  by  the  assassination  of  the  polemarchs.  On  the 
day  before  tlic  banquet,  Pelopidas,  with  six  other  exiles,  arrived 
at  Thebes  from  Athens,  and,  straggling  through  the  gates  towards 
dusk  in  the  disguise  of  rustics  and  huntsmen,  arrived  safely  at  the 
house  of  Charon,  where  they  remained  concealed  till  the  appoint- 
ed hour.  While  the  polemarchs  were  at  table,  a  messenger  ar- 
rived from  Athens  with  a  letter  for  Archias,  in  Avliich  the  whole 
plot  was  accurately  detailed.  The  messenger,  in  accordance  with 
his  instructions,  informed  Archias  that  the  letter  related  to  mat- 
ters of  great  importance.  But  the  polemarch,  completely  en- 
grossed by  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  thrust  the  letter  under  the 
pillow  of  his  couch,  exclaiming,  "  Serious  matters  to-morrow." 

The  hour  of  their  fate  was  nov/  ripe.    The  conspirators,  disguised 


1C2  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  CiiAr.  XVI. 

^vith  veils,  and  in  the  ample  folds  of  female  attire,  were  ushcrciS 
into  the  room.  For  men  in  the  state  of  the  revellers  the  decep- 
tion was  com})lcte ;  but  -when  they  attempted  to  lift  the  veils  from 
tlie  -women,  tlieir  passion  was  rewarded  ))y  the  mortal  tlirust  of  a 
dagger.  After  thus  slaying  the  two  polemarchs,  the  conspirators 
went  to  the  house  of  Leontiades,  Avhom  tliey  also  desjjatched. 

The  ncAvs  of  tlie  revolution  soon  spread  abroad,  rroclamations 
were  issued  announcing  that  Thebes  was  free,  and  calling  upon  aU 
citizens*  who  valued  their  liberty  to  muster  in  the  market-jjlace. 
As  soon  as  day  dawned,  and  the  citizens  became  aware  that  they 
were  summoned  to  vindicate  their  liberty,  their  joy  and  enthusiasm 
Avere  unbounded.  For  the  first  time  since  the  seizure  of  their  cit- 
adel they  met  in  public  assembly  ;  the  conspirators,  being  intro- 
duced, were  crowned  by  the  })riests  with  wreaths,  and  thanked  in 
the  name  of  their  country's  gods  ;  Avhilst  the  assembly,  with  grate- 
ful acclamation,  unanimously  nominated  Fclopidas,  Charon,  and 
Mellon  as  the  first  restored  Bccotarchs. 

Meanwhile  the  remainder  of  the  Theban  exiles,  accompanied 
by  a  body  of  Athenian  volunteers,  assembled  on  the  frontiers  of 
Bceotia  ;  and,  at  the  first  news  of  the  success  of  the  cons})iracy, 
hastened  to  Thebes  to  complete  the  revolution.  The  Thebans, 
under  their  new  Boeotarchs,  were  already  mounting  to  the  assault 
of  the  Cadniea,  when  the  Lacedaemonians  capitulated,  and  were 
allowed  to  march  out  with  the  honours  of  war.  The  Athenians 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  Thebans,  and  declared  war  agai\ist 
Sparta. 

From  this  time  must  bo  dated  the  a!ra  of  a  new  political  com- 
bination in  Greece.  Athens  strained  every  nerve  to  organize  a 
fresh  confederacy.  Thebes  did  not  scruple  to  enrol  herself  as  one 
of  its  earliest  members.  The  basis  on  which  the  confederacy  was 
formed  closely  resembled  that  of  Delos.  The  cities  comjjosing  it 
were  to  be  independent,  and  to  send  de])utics  to  a  congress  at 
Athens,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  common  fund  for  tlie  sujtport 
of  a  naval  force.  Care  was  taken  to  banish  all  recollections  con- 
nected with  the  former  unpopularity  of  the  Athenian  empire. 
The  name  of  the  tribute  was  no  longer  p/ioros,  but  si/niaris,  or 
''contribution."  The  confederacy,  which  ultimately  numbered 
70  cities,  was  chiefly  organized  through  the  exertions  of  Chabrias, 
and  of  Timotheus  the  son  of  Conon.  Nor  were  the  Thebans  les? 
zealous,  amongst  v.-hom  the  Spartan  government  had  left  a  lively 
feeling  of  antipathy.  The  milirary  force  was  put  in  the  1)cst 
training,  and  the  famous  "Sacred  Band"  was  now  for  the  first 
time  instituted,  'i'his  l)and  was  a  regiment  of  oOO  hoplitcs.  It 
was  supported  at  the  jjublic  cxjicnsc,  and  kept  constantly  under 


B.C.  378.  ALLIANCE  OF  ATHENS  AND  THEBES.        1G3 

arms.  It  was  composed  of  young  and  chosen  citizens  of  the  best 
families,  and  organized  in  such  a  manner  that  each  man  had  at 
his  side  a  dear  and  intimate  friend.  Its  special  duty  was  the  de- 
fence of  the  Cadmea. 

The  Thebans  had  always  been  excellent  soldiers ;  but  their 
good  fortune  now  gave  them  the  greatest  general  that  Greece  had 
liitherto  seen.  Epaminondas,  who  now  appears  conspicuously  in 
public  life,  deserves  the  reputation  not  merely  of  a  Theban,.  but  of 
a  Grecian  hero.  Sprung  from  a  poor  but  ancient  family,  Epami- 
nondas possessed  all  the  best  qualities  of  his  nation  without  that 
heaviness,  either  of  body  or  of  mind,  which  characterized  and  de- 
teriorated the  Theban  people.  By  the  study  of  philosophy  and 
by  other  intellectual  pursuits  his  mind  was  enlarged  beyond  the 
sphere  of  vulgar  superstition,  and  emancipated  from  that  timorous 
interpretation  of  nature  which  caused  even  some  of  the  leading 
men  of  those  days  to  behold  a  portent  in  the  most  ordinary  phe- 
nomenon. A  still  rarer  accomplishment  for  a  Theban  was  that 
of  eloquence,  which  he  possessed  in  no  ordinary  degree.  These 
intellectual  qualities  were  matched  with  moral  virtues  worthy  tc 
consort  with  them.  Though  eloquent,  he  was  discreet ;  though 
poor,  he  was  neither  avaricious  nor  corrupt ;  though  naturally  firm 
and  courageous,  he  was  averse  to  cruelty,  violence,  and  blood- 
shed ;  though  a  patriot,  he  was  a  stranger  to  personal  ambition, 
and  scorned  the  little  arts  by  which  popularity  is  too  often  court- 
ed. Pelopidas,  as  we  have  already  said,  was  his  bosom  friend. 
It  was  natural,  therefore,  that,  Avhen  Pelopidas  was  named  Bceo- 
tarch,  Epaminondas  should  be  prominently  employed  in  organiz- 
ing the  means  of  war;  but  it  was  not  till  some  years  later  that  his 
military  genius  shone  forth  in  its  full  lustre. 

The  Spartans  were  resolved  to  avenge  the  repulse  they  had  re- 
ceived; and  in  the  summer  of  b.c.  378  Agesilaus  marched  with  a 
large  army  into  Bocotia.  He  was  unable,  however,  to  effect  any- 
thing decisive,  and  subsequent  invasions  were  attended  with  the 
like  result.  The  Athenians  created  a  diversion  in  their  favour  by 
a  maritime  war,  and  thus  for  two  years  Boeotia  was  free  from 
Spartan  invasion.  Thebes  employed  this  time  in  extending  her 
domanion  over  the  neighbouring  cities.  One  of  her  most  import- 
ant successes  during  this  period  was  the  victory  gained  by  Pelopi- 
das over  a  Lacedemonian  force  near  Tegyra,  a  village  dependent 
upon  Orchomeuus  (n.c.  375).  Pelopidas  had  with  him  only  the 
Saci-ed  Baud  and  a  small  body  of  cavalry  when  he  fell  in  with  the 
Laced;cmonians,  who  were  nearly  twice  as  numerous,  lie  did 
lot,  however,  shrink  from  the  conflict  on  this  account ;  and  when 
one  of  Ms  men,  running  up  to  him,  exclaimod,  "Wo  are  fallen 


1G4  HISTORY  OF  GKEECE.  Ciiat.  XVI. 

into  the  midst  of  the  enemy,"  he  replied,  "Why  so,  more  than  thc^ 
into  the  midst  of  us?"  In  the  battle  which  ensued  the  two  Spar- 
tan commanders  fell  at  the  first  cliarge,  and  their  men  were  put 
°o  the  rout.  So  signal  a  victory  inspired  tlie  Thebans  witli  new 
confidence  and  vigour,  as  it  showed  that  Sparta  was  not  invincible 
even  in  a  pitched  battle,  and  with  the  advantage  of  numbers  on 
her  side.  By  the  year  374  b.c.  the  Thebans  had  succeeded  in  ex- 
pelling the  Lacedaemonians  from  Boeotia,  and  revived  the  Bccotin-l 
confederacy.  They  also  destroyed  the  restored  city  of  Plattca, 
and  obliged  its  inhabitants  once  more  to  seek  refuge  at  Athens. 

The  successes  of  the  Thebans  revived  the  jealousy  and  distrust 
of  Athens.  Prompted  by  these  feelings,  the  Athenians  opened 
negotiations  for  a  peace  Avith  Sjjarta ;  a  resolution  which  was  also 
adopted  by  tlie  majority  of  the  allies. 

A  congress  was  accordingly  opened  in  Sparta  in  the  spring  of  371 
B.C.  The  Athenians  were  represented  by  Callias  and  two  other 
envoys;  the  Thebans  by  Epaminondas,  then  one  of  the  polemarchs. 
The  terms  of  a  peace  were  agreed  upon,  by  which  the  independ- 
ence of  the  various  Grecian  cities  was  to  be  recognized ;  and  the 
Spartan  harmosts  and  garrisons  everywhere  dismissed.  Sparta 
ratified  the  treaty  for  herself  and  her  allies  ;  but  Athens  took  the 
oaths  only  for  herself,  and  was  followed  separately  by  her  allies. 
As  Epaminondas  refused  to  sign  exce})t  in  the  name  of  the  Ba'o- 
tian  confederation,  Agcsilaus  directed  the  name  of  the  Thebans  to 
be  struck  out  of  the  treaty,  and  proclaimed  tlicm  excluded  from 
it. 

The  peace  concluded  between  Sparta,  Athens,  and  their  repre- 
sentative allies  was  called  the  Peace  or  Callias.  The  result 
with  regard  to  Thebes  and  Sparta  will  appear  in  the  following 
chapter. 


03rea3,  Greaves.     (From  the  yEginetan  Marbles.> 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE    SUPREMACY    OF    THEBES,  B.C.  371-861. 

In  pursuance  of  the  treaty,  the  Lacedtfimonians  withdrew  theii 
harmosts  and  garrisons,  whilst  the  Athenians  recalled  their  fleet 
from  the  Ionian  Sea.  Only  one  feeling  prevailed  at  Sparta — a 
desire  to  crush  Thebes.  This  city  Avas  regarded  as  doomed  to 
destruction ;  and  it  was  not  for  a  moment  imagined  that,  single- 
handed,  she  would  be  able  to  resist  the  might  of  Sparta.  At  the 
time  when  the  peace  Avas  concluded  Cleombrotus  happened  to  be 
in  Phocis  at  the  head  of  a  Lacedaemonian  army,  and  he  now  re- 
ceived orders  to  invade  Bceotia  without  delay.  The  Thebans,  on 
their  side,  were  equally  determined  on  resistance.  The  two  armies 
met  on  the  memorable  plain  of  Leuctra,  near  Thespise.  The  forces 
on  each  side  are  not  accurately  known,  but  it  seems  probable  that 
the  Thebans  were  outnumbered  by  the  Lacedemonians.  The 
military  genius  of  Epaminondas,  howcA^er,  com.pensated  any  in- 
feriority of  numbers  by  novelty  of  tactics.  Up  to  this  time  Grecian 
battles  had  been  uniformly  conducted  by  a  general  attack  in  line. 
Epaminondas  noAV  first  adopted  the  manceuvre,  used  with  such 
success  by  Napoleon  in  modern  times,  of  concentrating  heavy 
masses  on  a  given  point  of  the  enemy's  array.  HaA'ing  formed 
his  left  Aving  into  a  dense  column  of  50  deep,  so  that  its  depth  AA-as 
greater  than  its  front,  he  directed  it  against  the  Lacedaemonian 
right,  containing  the  best  troops  in  their  army,  draAvn  up  12  deep, 
and  led  by  Cleombrotus  in  person.  The  shock  Avas  terrible. 
Cleombrotus  himself  was  mortally  Avounded  in  the  onset,  and  Avith 
difficulty  carried  off  by  his  comrades.  Numbers  of  his  officers,  as 
Avell  as  of  his  men,  Avere  slain,  and  the  Avhole  Aving  Avas  broken  and 


IGG  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XVII 

driven  back  to  their  camp.  The  loss  of  the  Tliebans  was  small 
compared  with  that  of  tlic  Lacedaemonians.  Out  of  700  Spartans 
in  tlie  army  of  the  latter,  400  liad  fallen  ;  and  their  kin<jj  al.-o  bad 
been  slain,  an  event  which  had  not  occurred  since  the  fatal  day  of 
Thermopylae. 

The  victory  of  Leuctra  was  gained  within  three  weeks  after  the 
exclusion  of  the  Tliebans  from  the  peace  of  Callias.  Tbe  cflcct 
»of  it  throughout  Greece  was  electrical.  It  was  everywhere  felt 
tliat  a  new  military  ])ower  had  arisen — that  the  prestige  of  the  old 
Spartan  discipline  and  tactics  had  departed.  Yet  at  Sparta  itself, 
though  the  reverse  was  the  greatest  that  her  arms  had  ever  sus- 
tained, the  news  of  it  Avas  received  with  an  assnmption  of  indiffer- 
ence cliaracteristic  of  the  peoj)le.  The  E])hors  forbade  the  chorus 
of  men,  who  were  celebrating  in  the  theatre  the  festival  of  the 
Gyrr.nopaedia,  to  be  interrui)ted.  They  contented  themselves  Avith 
directing  the  names  of  the  slain  to  be  communicated  to  their  rela- 
tives, and  Avith  issuing  an  order  forbidding  the  Avomen  to  Avail  and 
mourn.  Those  Avhose  friends  had  fallen  appeared  abroad  on  the 
morrow  Avith  joyful  countenances,  Avhilst  the  relatives  of  the  sur- 
vivors seemed  overAvhelmed  Avith  grief  and  shame. 

Immediately  after  the  battle  the  Thebons  had  sent  to  Jason  of 
riierae  in  Thcssaly  to  solicit  his  aid  against  the  Lacedaemonians. 
This  despot  Avas  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  the  period, 
lie  Avas  Tagus,  or  Generalissimo,  of  all  Thcssaly ;  and  Macedonia 
was  partially  dependent  on  him.  He  Avas  a  man  of  boundless  am- 
bition, and  meditated  nothing  less  than  extending  his  dominion 
OA'cr  tlie  Avhole  of  Greece,  for  Avhich  his  central  situation  seemed 
to  ofler  many  facilities.  Upon  receiving  the  invitation  of  the 
Thebans,  Jason  immediately  resolved  to  join  them.  When  he 
arriA^d  the  Thebans  Avere  anxious  that  he  should  unite  Avitli  them 
in  an  attack  upon  the  Lacedicmonian  camp ;  but  Jason  dissuaded 
them  from  the  entcqirise,  advising  them  not  to  drive  the  Lacedae- 
monians to  des])air,  and  otiering  his  mediation.  He  accordingly 
succeeded  in  effecting  a  truce,  by  Avhich  the  Lacedaemonians  Avere 
alloAved  to  depart  from  Boeotia  immolested. 

According  to  Si)artan  custom,  tlie  surviA-ors  of  a  defeat  Averc 
Jookcd  ujjon  as  dograck'd  men,  and  su])jcctcd  to  the  ]icnalties  of 
civil  infamy.  No  allowance  Avas  made  for  circumstances.  J5ut 
those  Avho  had  fled  at  Leuctra  Avcre  three  hundred  in  number  ;  an 
attempt  to  enforce  against  them  the  usual  penalties  might  prove 
not  only  inconvenient,  but  even  dangerous;  and  on  the  prt)posal 
of  Agesilaus,  they  Avere,  for  this  ocfasion,  susjx'ndcd.  The  loss 
of  material  jiower  Avliich  Sj)arta  sustained  by  the  defeat  Avas  great. 
The  ascendency  she  had  hitherto  enjoyed  in  jiarts  iu)rth  of  th« 


B.C.  370.     EPAMINOXDAS  INVADES  LACONIA.  107 

Corinthian  Gulf  fell  from  her  at  once,  and  was  divided  between 
Jason  of  rheviii  and  the  Thcbans.  Jason  was  shortly  afterwards 
assassinated.  His  deatli  Avas  felt  as  a  relief  by  Greece,  and  es- 
pecially by  Thebes.  He  Avas  succeeded  by  his  two  brothers, 
Polvphron  and  Polydorus ;  but  they  possessed  neither  his  ability 
nor  his  power. 

The  Athenians  stood  aloof  from  the  contending  parties.  They 
had  not  received  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Leuctra  with  any  pleas-.' 
ure,  for  they  now  dreaded  Thebes  more  than  Sparta.  But,  instead 
of  helping  the  latter,  they  endeavoured  to  prevent  either  from  ob- 
taining the  supremacy  in  Greece,  and  for  this  purpose  called  upon 
the  other  states  to  form  a  new  alliance  upon  the  terms  of  the 
peace  of  Antalcidas.  Most  of  the  Peloponnesian  states  joined  this 
new  league.  Thus  even  the  Peloponnesian  cities  became  inde- 
pendent of  Sparta.  But  this  was  not  all.  Never  did  any  state 
fall  with  greater  rapidity.  She  not  only  lost  the  dominion  over 
states  which  she  had  exercised  for  centuries,  but  two  new  political 
powers  sprang  up  in  the  peninsula  which  threatened  her  own  in- 
dependence. 

In  the  following  year  (b.c.  370)  Epaminondas  marched  into 
Laconia,  and  threatened  Sparta  itself.  The  city,  which  was  whol- 
ly unfortified,  was  filled  with  confusion  and  alarm.  The  women, 
who  had  never  yet  seen  the  face  of  an  enemy,  gave  vent  to  their 
fears  in  wailing  and  lamentation.  Agesilaus,  however,  was  un- 
dismayed, and  saved  the  state  by  his  vigilance  and  energy.  He 
repulsed  the  cavalry  of  Epaminondas  as  they  advanced  towards 
Sparta ;  and  so  vigorous  were  his  measures  of  defence,  that  the 
Theban  general  abandoned  all  further  attempt  upon  the  city,  and 
proceeded  southwards  as  far  as  Helos  and  Gythium  on  the  coast, 
the  latter  the  port  and  arsenal  of  Sparta.  After  laying  waste  with 
fire  and  sword  the  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  he  retraced  his  steps  to 
the  frontiers  of  Arcadia. 

Epaminondas  now  proceeded  to  caiTy  out  the  two  objects  for 
which  his  march  had  been  undertaken,  namely,  the  consolidation 
of  the  Arcadian  confederation,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Mes- 
senians  as  an  independent  community.  In  the  prosecution  of  the 
former  of  these  designs  the  mutual  jealousy  of  the  various  Arca- 
dian cities  rendered  it  necessary  that  a  new  one  should  be  found- 
ed, which  should  be  regarded  as  the  capital  of  the  confederation. 
Consequently,  a  new  city  Avas  built  on  the  banks  of  the  Helisson, 
called  Megalopolis,  and  peopled  by  the  inhabitants  of  forty  dis- 
tinci  Arcadian  tOAvnships.  Here  a  synod  of  deputies  from  the 
towns  composing  the  confederation,  called  the  "Ten  Thousand," 
was  to  meet  periodically  for  the  despatch  of  business.     Epami- 


1G8  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XVII. 

nondas  next  proceeded  to  re-establish  the  INIesscnian  state.  Th« 
Messenians  had  formerly  lived  under  a  dynasty  of  their  own 
kings  ;  but  fur  the  last  three  centuries  their  land  liad  been  in  tlic 
possession  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  they  had  been  fugitives 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  restoration  of  these  exiles,  dis- 
persed in  various  Hellenic  colonies,  to  their  former  rights,  would 
plant  a  bitterly  hostile  neighbour  on  the  very  borders  of  Laconia, 
Epaminondas  accordingly  o])cned  communications  with  them,  and 
nunibcrs  of  them  flocked  to  his  standard  during  his  march  into 
Peloponnesus,  He  now  founded  the  town  of  Messcne.  Its  cita- 
del was  placed  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Ithome,  which  had  three 
centuries  before  been  so  bravely  defended  by  the  Messenians  against 
the  Spartans.  The  strength  of  its  fortifications  was  long  after- 
wards a  subject  of  admiration.  The  territory  attached  to  the  new 
city  extended  southwards  to  the  Messenian  Gulf,  and  northwards 
to  the  borders  of  Arcadia,  comprising  some  of  the  most  fertile  land 
in  Peloponnesus. 

So  low  had  Sparta  sunk,  that  slie  was  fain  to  send  envoys  to  beg 
the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  This  request  was  acceded  to ; 
and  shortly  afterwards  an  alliance  was  formed  between  the  two 
states,  in  which  Sparta  waived  all  her  claims  to  superiority  and 
headshi]).  Inuring  tl;e  next  two  yenrs  the  Thebans  continued 
steadily  to  increase  their  power  and  inHuence  in  Greece,  tliough 
no  great  battle  was  fought.  In  B.C.  3G8  Pelopidas  conducted  a 
Theban  force  into  Thessaly  and  Macedonia.  In  Thessaly  lie  com- 
pelled Alexander,  who,  by  the  minder  of  his  two  brothers,  had 
become  despot  of  Pherie  and  Tagus  of  Thessaly,  to  relinquish  his 
designs  against  the  independence  of  Larissa  and  other  Thessalian 
cities,  and  to  solicit  peace.  In  ^Macedonia  he  formed  an  nllianco 
Avith  the  regent  Ptolemy ;  and  amongst  the  hostages  given  for  the 
observance  of  this  treaty  was  the  youthful  Philii>,  son  of  Amyntas, 
aftenvards  the  celebrated  King  of  Macedon,  who  remained  for 
some  vears  at  Thebes. 

In  the  following  year  Pelopidas  and  Ismenias  proceeded  on  an 
embassy  to  Persia.  Ever  since  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  the  Great 
King  had  become  the  recognized  mediator  between  the  states  of 
Greece,  and  his  fiat  seemed  indis])ensable  to  stamp  the  claims  of 
that  city  which  ])retcnded  to  the  headship.  The  recent  achieve- 
ments of  Thebes  might  entitle  lier  to  asjjire  to  that  ])osition  ;  and, 
at  all  events,  the  alterations  which  she  had  produced  in  the  in- 
ternal state  of  Greece,  by  the  establishment  of  INIcgaloiiolis  and 
Messcne,  seemed  to  require  for  their  stability  the  sanction  of  a 
t'ersian  rescri])t.  This  was  obtained  without  dilliculty,  as  Thebes 
WHS  now  the  strongest  state  in  Greece,  and  it  was  evidently  easier 


B.C.  3GL  DEATH  OF  PELOPIDAS.  IGD 

to  exercise  Persian  ascendency  there  by  her  means  than  through 
a  weaker  power.  The  Persian  rescript  pronounced  the  independ- 
ence of  Messcue  and  Am^jhipolis  ;  the  Athenians  were  directed  to 
lay  up  their  ships  of  war  in  ordinary ;  and  Thebes  was  declared 
the  head  of  Greece. 

It  was,  in  all  probability,  during  a  mission  undertaken  by  Pelop- 
idas  and  Ismenias  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  rescript  in  Thessaly  and  the  northern  parts  of  Greece 
that  they  Avere  seized  and  imprisoned  by  Alexander  of  Phenc. 
The  Thebans  immediately  despatched  an  army  of  8000  hoplites 
and  COO  cavalry  to  recover  or  avenge  their  favourite  citizen.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  they  were  no  longer  commanded  by  Epami- 
nondas.  Their  present  commanders  were  utterly  incompetent. 
Tliey  were  beaten  and  forced  to  retreat,  and  the  army  was  in  such 
danger  from  the  active  pursuit  of  tlie  Thessalians  and  Athenians 
that  its  destruction  seemed  inevitable.  Luckily,  however,  Ejiami- 
nondas  was  serving  as  a  hoplite  in  the  ranks.  By  the  unanimous 
voice  of  the  troops  he  was  now  called  to  the  command,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  conducting  the  army  safely  back  to  Thebes.  Here  the 
unsuccessful  Boeotarchs  were  disgraced ;  Epaminondas  was  re- 
stored to  the  command,  and  placed  at  the  head  of  a  second  The- 
ban  army  destined  to  attempt  the  release  of  Pelopidas.  Directed 
by  his  superior  skill,  the  enterprise  proved  successful,  and  Pelopi- 
das (B.C.  367)  returned  in  safety  to  Thebes. 

In  B.C.  3S-1:  Pelopidas  again  marched  into  Thessaly  against 
Alexander  of  Phera;.  Strong  complaints  of  the  tyranny  of  that 
despot  arrived  at  Thebes,  and  Pelopidas,  who  probably  also  burned 
to  avenge  his  private  wrongs,  prevailed  upon  the  Thebans  to  send 
him  into  Thessaly  to  punish  the  tyrant.  The  battle  was  fought 
on  the  hills  of  Cynoscephalaj ;  the  troops  of  Alexander  were  rout- 
ed ;  and  Pelopidas,  observing  his  hated  enemy  endeavouring  to 
rally  them,  was  seized  with  such  a  transport  of  rage  that,  regard-  - 
less  of  his  duties  as  a  general,  he  rushed  impetuously  fonvards 
and  challenged  him  to  single  combat.  Alexander  shrank  back 
within  the  ranks  of  his  guards,  followed  impetuously  by  Pelopidas, 
who  was  soon  slain,  fighting  with  desperate  bravery.  Although 
the  army  of  Alexander  was  defeated  with  severe  loss,  the  news  of 
the  death  of  Pelopidas  deprived  the  Thebans  and  their  Thessa- 
lian  allies  of  all  the  joy  which  they  would  otherwise  have  felt  at 
their  victorv. 

Meantime  a  war  had  been  carried  on  between  Elis  and  Arcadia 
which  had  led  to  disunion  among  the  Arcadians  themselves.  The 
Mantineans  supported  the  Eleans,  who  were  also  assisted  by  the 
Spartans ;  whilst  the  rest  of  the  Arcadians,  and  especially  the  Te- 


170  HISTORY  OF  GUEECE.  CiiAr.  XVII 

Rcans,  favoured  Thebes.  In  n.c.  3G2  Epaminondas  marched  into 
reloponiicsus  to  support  the  Thcban  party  in  Arcadia.  The  Spar- 
tans sent  a  ])nwcrful  force  to  the  assistance  of  the  I\rantiiieans,  in 
whose  territory  the  hostile  armies  met.  In  the  battle  -which  en- 
sued Epaminondas  formed  his  Boeotian  troops  into  a  column  of 
extraordinary  depth,  with  which  lie  bore  down  all  before  them. 
The  Mantineans  and  Lacedaemonians  turned  and  fled,  and  the  rest 
followed  their  example.  The  day  was  won  ;  but  Ejiaminondas, 
who  fought  in  the  foremost  ranks,  fell  pierced  with  a  mortal 
wound.  His  fall  occasioned  such  consternation  among  his  troops, 
that,  although  the  enemy  were  in  full  flight,  ihey  did  not  know 
how  to  use  their  advantage,  and  remained  rooted  to  the  spot. 
Epaminondas  Avas  carried  elf  the  field  with  the  spear-head  still 
fixed  in  his  breast.  Having  satisfied  himself  that  his  shield  was 
safe,  and  that  the  victory  was  gained,  he  inquired  for  lolaidas  and 
Daiphantus,  whom  he  intended  to  succeed  him  in  the  command. 
Being  informed  that  both  were  slain,  "then,"  he  observed,  "you 
must  make  peace."  After  that  he  ordered  the  spear-head  to  be 
withdrawn,  v.hcn  the  gush  of  blood  which  followed  soon  tenni- 
nated  his  life.  Thus  died  this  truly  great  man  ;  and  never  was 
there  one  whose  title  to  that  epithet  has  been  less  disputed.  An- 
tiquity is  unanimous  in  his  praise,  and  some  of  the  first  men  of 
Greece  subsequently  took  him  for  their  model.  With  him  the 
commanding  influence  of  Thebes  began  and  ended.  IHs  last  ad- 
vice was  adopted,  and  peace  was  concluded  probably  before  the 
Theban  army  quitted  Peloponnesus.  Its  basis  was  a  recognition 
cf  the  status  quo — to  IcaA'C  everything  as  it  was,  to  acknowledge 
the  Arcadian  constitution  and  the  independence  of  Messcnt'. 
S])arta  alone  refused  to  join  it  on  account  of  the  last  article,  but 
she  was  not  supported  by  her  allies. 

Agesilaus  had  lived  to  see  tlie  empire  of.  Sparta  extinguished 
by  her  hated  rival.  Thus  curiously  had  the  ])ropliecy  been  ful- 
filled which  warned  Sparta  of  the  evils  awaiting  her  under  a  "lame 
sovereignty."  But  Agesilaus  had  not  yet  abandoned  all  hope, 
and  he  now  directed  his  views  towards  the  east  as  the  quarter 
from  which  S]iartnn  power  might  still  be  resuscitated.  At  i'uQ 
age  of  80  the  indomitable  old  man  i)roceeded  with  a  force  of  1000 
ho])lites  to  assist  Tachos,  king  of  Egypt,  in  his  revolt  against  .Ver- 
Bia.  He  died  at  Gyrene  on  his  return  to  Greece.  His  body  wai 
embalmed  in  wax,  and  sjjleudidly  buried  iu  Sparta. 


Coin  of  Syracuse. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


BISTORT   OF    THE    SICILIAN    CREEKS     TRO^VI    THE    DESTRUCTION"   CS 
THE    ATHENIAN   ARMAMENT   TO   THE    DEATH   OF   TIJIOLEON. 

The  affairs  of  the  Sicilian  Greeks,  an  important  branch  of  tho 
Hellenic  race,  deserve  a  passing  notice.  A  few  years  after  the 
destruction  of  the  Athenian  armament,  Dionysius  made  himself 
master  of  Syracuse,  and  openly  seized  upon  the  supreme  powef 
(B.C.  405).  His  reign  as  tyrant  or  despot  Avas  long  and  prosper- 
ous. After  conquering  the  Carthaginians,  who  more  than  once  in- 
vaded Sicily,  he  extended  his  dominion  over  a  great  part  of  ths 
island,  and  over  a  considerable  portion  of  Magna  Grrecia.  He 
raised  Syracuse  to  be  one  of  the  chief  Grecian  states,  second  in  in- 
fluence, if  indeed  second,  to  Sparta  alone.  Under  his  sway  Syr- 
acusc  was  strengthened  and  embellished  with  new  fortifications, 
docks,  arsenals,  and  other  public  buildings,  and  became  superior 
even  to  Athens  in  extent  and  population. 

Dionysius  was  a  warm  friend  of  literature,  and  was  anxious  to 


172  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  CiiAr.XVill. 

gain  distinction  hy  his  literary  compositions.  In  the  midst  of  his 
political  and  military  cares  ho  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  po- 
etry, and  not  only  caused  his  poems  to  l)e  publicly  recited  at  tho 
Olympic  games,  but  repeatedly  contended  for  the  prize  of  tragedy 
at  Athens.  In  accordance  with  the  same  spirit  we  find  him  seek- 
ing the  society  of  men  distinguished  in  literature  and  philosoj)hy. 
Plato,  who  visited  Sicily  about  the  year  389  from  a  curiosity  to  seo 
Mount  iEtna,  was  introduced  to  Dionysius  by  Dion.  The  high 
moral  tone  of  IMato's  conversation  did  not,  howevei,  prove  so  at- 
tractive to  Dionysius  as  it  had  done  to  Dion  ;  and  the  philosopher 
was  not  only  dismissed  with  aversion  and  dislike,  but  even,  it  seems, 
through  the  machinations  of  Dionysius,  seiz^ed,  bound,  and  sold  for 
a  slave  in  the  island  of  JEgina.  He  was,  however,  repurchased  by 
Anniceris  of  Cyrone,  and  sent  back  to  Atliens. 

Dionysius  died  in  n.c.  3G7,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son, 
commonly  called  tlie  younger  Dionysius,  who  was  about  25  years 
of  ago  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death.  At  first  he  listened  to  the 
counsels  of  Dion,  who  liad  always  enjoyed  the  respect  and  confi- 
dence of  his  father.  At  the  advice  of  Dion  he  invited  Tlato  to 
Syracuse,  where  the  ])hilosopher  was  received  with  the  greatest 
honour.  His  illustrious  pupil  immediately  began  to  take  lessons 
in  geometry  ;  superfluous  dishes  disappeared  from  the  royal  table  ; 
and  Dionysius  even  betrayed  some  symptoms  of  a  wish  to  mitigate 
the  former  rigours  of  the  despotism.  But  now  the  old  courtiers 
took  the  alarm.  It  was  wliispered  to  Dionysius  that  the  whole  was 
a  deep-laid  scheme  on  the  part  of  Dion  for  the  purpose  of  effect- 
ing a  revolution  and  placing  his  own  ne])hews  on  tlie  throne.* 
Tiiese  accusations  liad  tlie  desired  effect  on  the  mind  of  Dionysius, 
who  shortly  afterwards  expelled  Dion  from  Sicily.  Plato  with 
difficulty  obtained  permission  to  return  to  Greece  (u.c.  3(50). 
Dionysius  now  gave  way  to  his  vices  without  restraint,  and  be- 
came an  object  of  contempt  to  the  Syracusans.  Dion  saw  that 
the  time  had  come  for  avenging  his  own  wrongs  as  well  as  those 
of  his  country.  Collecting  a  small  force,  he  sailed  to  Sicily,  and 
suddenly  ajipeared  befoi'e  the  gates  of  Syracuse  during  the  absence 
of  Dionysius  on  an  expedition  to  the  coasts  of  Italy.  The  inhab- 
itants, filled  with  joy,  welcomed  Dion  as  their  deliverer;  and  Di- 
onysius on  his  return  from  Italy  found  liimself  compelled  to  quit 
Syracuse  (n.c.  35(5),  leaving  Dion  undisputed  master  of  the  city. 
The  latter  was  now  in  a  condition  to  carry  out  all  those  exalted 

•  TliR  older  Diony^^ill■^  Imil  mniTied  two  wivos  nt  tlie  pamo  time:  one  of  thc?e 
was  H  Locniiii  woiiiiin  luinicJ  Dori.-i;  the  other,  Aristoniache,  wiis  a  Syracu:<!in, 
and  the  sister  of  Dion.  Tlie  ydiinger  Dionysiud  w&s  \m  elilc^t  son  by  Doris;  but 
he  aUo  had  cliildren  hy  Arii«tonmcliP. 


B.C.  344.  TIMOLEON  INVADES  SICILY.  173 

notions  of  political  life  which  he  had  sought  to  instil  into  the 
mind  of  Dionysius.  lie  seems  to  have  contemplated  some  polit- 
ical changes ;  but  his  immediate  and  practical  acts  Avcre  tjranni- 
cal,  and  were  rendered  still  more  unpopular  by  his  OA-erbearing 
manners.  His  unpopularity  continued  to  increase,  till  at  length 
one  of  his  bosom  friends — the  Athenian  Callip])us — seized  the  op- 
portunity to  mount  to  power  by  liis  murder,  and  caused  him  to  be 
assassinated  in  his  own  house.  This  event  took  place  in  353,  about 
three  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Dionysian  dynasty.  Callip- 
pus  contrived  to  retain  the  sovereign  power  only  a  twelvemonth, 
A  period  of  anarchy  followed,  during  which  Dionysius  made  him- 
self master  of  the  city  by  treachery,  about  b.c.  o-lG.  Dionysius, 
however,  was  not  able  to  re-establish  himself  firmly  in  his  former 
power.  Most  of  the  other  cities  of  Sicily  had  shaken  off  the  yoke 
of  SyrsK^use,  and  were  governed  by  petty  despots.  Meantime  the 
Carthaginians  prepared  to  take  advantage  of  tlie  distracted  condi- 
tion of  Sicily.  In  the  extremity  of  their  sufferings,  several  of  the 
Syracusan  exiles  appealed  for  aid  to  Corinth,  their  mother-city. 
The  application  was  granted,  and  Timolcon  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand an  expedition  destined  for  the  relief  of  Syracuse. 

Timoleon  was  distinguished  for  gentleness  as  well  as  for  courage, 
but  towards  traitors  and  despots  his  hatred  was  intense.  He  had 
once  saved  the  life  of  his  elder  brother  Timophanes  in  battle  at  the 
imminent  peril  of  his  own  ;  but  when  Timophanes,  aA'ailing  himself 
of  his  situation  as  commander  of  the  garrison  in  the  Acrocorinthus, 
endeavoured  to  enslave  his  country,  Timoleon  did  not  hesitate  to 
consent  to  his  death.  Twice  before  had  Timoleon  pleaded  with 
his  brother,  beseeching  him  not  to  destroy  the  liberties  of  his  coun- 
try ;  but  when  Timophanes  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  these  appeals, 
Timoleon  connived  at  the  action  of  his  friends,  who  put  him  to 
death,  whilst  he  himself,  bathed  in  a  flood  of  tears,  stood  a  little 
way  aloof.  The  great  body  of  the  citizens  regarded  tlie  conduct 
of  Timoleon  with  love  and  admiration.  In  the  mind  of  Timoleon, 
hov/ever,  their  approving  verdict  was  fiir  more  than  outweighed  by 
the  reproaches  and  execrations  of  his  mother.  For  many  years 
nothing  could  prevail  upon  him  to  return  to  public  life.  He  buried 
himself  in  the  country  far  from  the  haunts  of  men,  till  a  chance 
voice  in  the  Corinthian  assembly  nominated  him  as  the  leader  of 
the  expedition  against  Dionysius. 

Kouscd  by  the  natui-e  of  the  cause  and  the  exhortations  of  his 
friends,  Timoleon  accepted  the  post  thus  offered  to  him.  His  suc- 
cess exceeded  his  hopes.  As  soon  as  he  a])pearcd  before  Syracuse, 
Dionysius,  who  appears  to  have  abandoned  all  hope  of  ultimate 
success,  surrendered  the  citadel  into  his  hands  on  condition  of  be- 


174  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XVIIl 

ing  allowed  to  depai't  in  safety  to  Corinth  (b.c.  343).  Dionysiua 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Corinth,  -wliere  he  is  said  to  have 
disjjlayed  some  remnants  of  liis  former  luxury  by  the  fastidious 
taste  which  he  showed  in  the  choice  of  his  viands,  unguents,  dress, 
and  furniture  ;  whilst  his  literary  inclinations  manifested  them- 
selves in  teaching  the  public  singers  and  actors,  and  in  opening  a 
school  for  boys. 

Timoleon  also  expelled  the  other  tyrants  from  the  Sicilian  cities, 
and  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  at  the  Kiver  Cri- 
mesus  (or  Criraissus).  lie  restored  a  rei)ublican  constitution  to 
Syracuse ;  and  liis  first  public  act  was  to  destroy  the  impregnable 
fortifications  of  the  citadel  of  Ortygia,  the  stronghold  of  the  elder 
and  tlie  younger  Dionysius.  All  the  rewards  which  Timoleon  re- 
ceived for  his  great  services  Avere  a  house  in  Syracuse,  and  some 
landed  property  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city.  He  now  sent  for 
liis  family  from  Corintli,  and  became  a  Syracusan  citizen,  lie  con- 
tinued, however,  to  retain,  thougli  in  a  private  station,  the  greatest 
influence  in  the  state.  During  the  latter  ])art  of  his  life,  though 
}ie  was  totally  deprived  of  sight,  yet,  Avhen  important  aflfairs  were 
discussed  in  the  assembly,  it  was  customary  to  send  for  Timoleon, 
who  was  drawn  in  a  car  into  the  middle  of  the  tlieatre  amid  the 
shouts  and  afTectionfttc  greetings  of  tlie  assembled  citizens.  "When 
the  tumult  of  his  reception  had  subsided  he  listened  patiently  to 
the  debate.  The  opinion  which  he  pronounced  was  usually  ratified 
by  the  vote  of  the  assembly  ;  and  he  then  left  the  theatre  amidst 
the  same  cheers  which  had  greeted  his  arrival.  In  this  liapi)y  and 
lionoured  condition  he  breathed  his  last  in  r,.c.  33(>,  a  few  years  aft- 
er the  battle  of  Criiuesus.  lie  was  splendidly  iri'^.erred  at  the  ])ub- 
lie  cost,  whilst  the  tears  of  tlie  whole  Syracusaw  ivipjij^it^^ji  follow- 
ed him  to  the  grave. 


I'illtO. 


Demosthenes. 
CHAPTER  XrX. 

PHILIP  or  MACEDON,  B.C.  S59-33G. 

The  internal  dissensions  of  Greece  produced  their  natural  fruits; 
and  we  shall  have  now  to  relate  the  downfall  of  lier  indci^endencQ 
and  her  subjugation  by  a  foreign  power.  This  power  was  Mace- 
donia, an  obscure  state  to  the  north  of  Thessaly,  hitherto  OA'cr- 
looked  and  despised,  and  considered  as  altogether  barbarous,  and 
without  the  pale  of  Grecian  civilization.  But,  though  the  Mace- 
donians were  not  Greeks,  their  sovereigns  claimed  to  be  descend- 
ed from  an  Hellenic  race,  namely,  that  of  Temenus  of  Argos  ;  and 
it  is  said  that  Alexander  I.  proved  his  Argive  descent  previously 
to  contending  at  the  Olympic  games.  Perdiccas  is  commonly  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  the  monarchy ;  of  the  history  of  which, 
however,  little  is  known  till  the  reign  of  Amyntas  I.,  his  fifth  suc- 
cessor, Avho  was  contemporary  with  the  Pisistratidaj  at  Athens. 
Under  Amyntas,  who  submitted  to  the  satrap  Megabyzus,  Mace- 
donia became  subject  to  Persia,  and  remained  so  till  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Plataja.  The  reigns  of  the  succeeding  sovereigns  present 
little  that  is  remarkable,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  Archelaus 
(n.c.  413).  This  monarch  transfen'ed  his  residence  from  JEgod  to 
Pella,  Avhich  thus  became  the  capital.  He  entertained  many  lit- 
erary men  at  his  court,  such  as  Euripides,  who  ended  his  days  at 
Pclla.  Archelaus  Avas  assassinated  in  B.C.  399,  and  the  crown  de- 
volved upon  Amyntas  II.,  a  representative  of  the  ancient  line. 
Amyntas  left  three  sons,  the  youngest  being  the  celebi'ated  Philip, 
of  whom  we  have  now  to  speak. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  youthful  Philip  was  one 
of  the  hostages  delivered  to  the  Thebans  as  security  for  the  peace 
etfectcd  by  Pelopidas.  His  residence  at  Thebes  gave  him  somo 
tincture  of  Grecian  philosophy  and  literature ;  but  the  most  im- 
portant lesson  which  he  learned  at  that  citj'  v/as  the  art  of  war. 


17G  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Ciiap.XTS:. 

with  all  the  improved  tactics  introduced  by  Epaniinondas.  Philip 
succeeded  to  the  tlirone  at  the  age  of  23  (u.c,  35'J),  and  displayed 
ftt  the  beginning  of  his  reign  his  extraordinary  energy  and  abilities. 
After  defeating  the  Illyrians  he  cstablislied  a  standing  army,  in 
which  discipline  was  preserved  by  the  severest  punishments.  lie 
introduced  the  far-famed  Macedonian  phalanx,  which  was  IG  men 
deep,  armed  with  long  projecting  spears. 

Philip's  views  were  first  turned  towards  the  eastern  frontiers  of 
his  dominions,  where  his  interests  clashed  with  those  of  the  Athe- 
nians. A  few  years  before  the  Athenians  had  made  various  un- 
availing attempts  to  obtain  possession  of  Amphipolis,  once  the 
jewel  of  their  empire,  but  which  they  had  never  recovered  since 
its  capture  by  Brasidas  in  the  eighth  year  of  the  Peloponncsian 
war.  Its  situation  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon  rendered  it  also 
valuable  to  Macedonia,  not  only  as  a  commercial  port,  but  as  open- 
ing a  passage  into  Thrace.  The  Olynthians  Avere  likewise  anxious 
to  enrol  Amphipolis  as  a  member  of  their  confederacy,  and  ac- 
cordingly proposed  to  the  Athenians  to  form  an  alliance  for  the 
purpose  of  defending  Amphipolis  against  their  mutual  enemy.  An 
alliance  between  these  two  powerful  states  would  have  proved  an 
insurmountable  obstacle  to  Philijj's  views,  and  it  was  therefore 
absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  this  coalition.  Here  we  have  the 
first  instance  of  Philip's  skill  and  dujjlicity  in  negotiation.  By 
secretly  promising  the  Athenians  that  he  would  put  Ami)liipolis 
into  their  hands  if  they  would  give  him  possession  of  Pydna,  lie 
induced  tliem  to  reject  the  overtures  of  the  Olynthians;  and  by 
ceding  to  the  latter  the  town  of  Antlicmus,  he  bought  otf  their  op- 
position. He  now  laid  siege  to  Amphipolis,  which,  being  thus 
left  unaided,  fell  into  his  hands  (b.c.  358).  He  then  forthwith 
marched  against  Pydna,  which  surrendered  to  him  ;  but  on  tho 
ground  tliat  it  was  not  the  Atlienians  who  had  ])ut  him  in  pos* 
session  of  this  town,  he  refused  to  give  up  Amphipolis  to  them. 

Pliilip  had  now  just  reason  to  dread  the  enmity  of  the  Athe- 
nians, and  accordingly  it  was  his  policy  to  court  the  favour  of  the 
Olyutliians,  and  to  prevent  tlienr  from  renewing  their  negotiations 
with  the  Atlienians.  In  order  to  separate  them  more  cflectually, 
he  assisted  the  Olynthians  in  rccoA-ering  Potidica,  which  had  for- 
merly belonged  to  their  confederacy,  but  was  now  in  the  hands  of 
tlie  Athenians.  On  tlie  capture  of  the  town  he  handed  it  over  to 
the  Olynthians.  Plutarch  relates  that  the  capture  of  l'otida\'i  wns 
accompanied  with  three  other  fortunate  events  in  tlie  life  of  Pliilip, 
namely,  the  prize  gained  by  his  chariot  at  the  Olympic  games,  a 
victory  of  his  general  Parmenio  over  the  Illyrians,  and  the  birth 
of  his  son  Alexander.     These  events  happened  in  n.c.  356. 


B.C.  357.  SOCIAL  AND  SACRED  WAES.  177 

Pliilip  now  crossed  tho  Strymon,  on  the  left  bank  of  which  lay 
Pangajus,  a  range  of  mountains  abounding  in  gold-mines.  lie 
conquered  the  district,  and  founded  there  a  new  town  called  Phi- 
lippi,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Thracian  town  of  Crenides.  By 
improved  methods  of  Avorking  the  mines  he  made  them  yield  an 
annual  revenue  of  1000  talents,  nearly  £250,000. 

Meanwhile  Athens  was  engaged  in  a  war  Avith  her  allies,  which 
has  been  called  the  Social  War,  and  which  Avas,  perhaps,  the 
reason  why  she  was  obliged  to  look  quietly  on  whilst  Philip  was 
thus  aggrandizing  himself  at  her  expense.  This  Avar  broke  out 
in  B.C.  357.  The  chief  causes  of  it  seem  to  have  been  the  contri- 
butions levied  upon  the  allies  by  the  Athenian  generals.  The 
Avar  lasted  three  years ;  and  as  Artaxerxes,  the  Persian  king, 
threatened  to  support  the  allies  Avith  a  fleet  of  300  ships,  the 
Athenians  Avere  obliged  to  consent  to  a  disadA^antageous  peace, 
which  secured  the  independence  of  the  more  important  allies  (b. 
C.  355). 

Another  Avar,  AA^hich  had  been  raging  during  the  same  time, 
tended  still  further  to  exhaust  the  Grecian  states,  and  thus  paA'o 
the  Avay  for  Philip's  progress  to  the  supremacy.  This  Avas  the 
Saci'ed  War,  Avhich  broke  out  betAvcen  Thebes  and  Phocis  in  the 
same  year  as  the  Social  War  (n.c.  357).  An  ill-feeling  had  long 
subsisted  between  those  two  countries.  The  Thebans  noAV  aA'ailed 
themseh-es  of  the  influence  Avliich  they  possessed  in  the  Amphicty- 
onic  council  to  take  A'cngeance  upon  the  Phocians,  and  accord- 
ingly induced  this  body  to  impose  a  heavy  fine  upon  the  latter 
people,  because  they  had  cultivated  a  portion  of  the  Cirrhaan 
plain,  Avhich  had  been  consecrated  to  the  Delphian  god,  and  Avas 
to  lie  Avaste  for  ever.  The  Phocians  pleaded  that  the  payment  of 
the  fine  Avould  ruin  them  ;  but,  instead  of  listening  to  their  rcmon' 
strances,  the  Amphictyons  doubled  the  amount,  and  threatened, 
in  case  of  their  continued  refusal,  to  reduce  them  to  the  condition 
of  serfs.  Thus  driven  to  desperation,  the  Phocians  resolved  to 
comijlcte  the  sacrilege  Avith  Avhich  they  had  been  branded,  by 
seizing  the  very  temple  of  Delphi  itself.  The  leader  and  coun- 
sellor of  this  enterprise  Avas  Philomelus,  aa'Iio,  Avith  a  force  of  no 
more  than  2000  men,  surprised  and  took  Delphi.  At  first,  hoAv- 
evcr,  he  carefully  abstained  from  touching  the  sacred  treasure ; 
but,  being  hard,])ressed  by  the  Thebans  and  their  allies,  he  thrcAv 
olr  tlie  scruples  Avhich  he  had  hitherto  assumed,  and  announced 
that  the  sacred  treasures  should  be  conA'erted  into  a  fund  for  the 
payment  of  mercenaries.  On  the  death  of  Philomelus,  Avho  fell 
in  battle,  the  command  Avas  assumed  by  his  brother  Onomarchus, 
who  carried  on  the  Avar  Avith  vigour  and  success.     But  he  Avas 

M 


173  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Ciim>.  XIX. 

checked  in  liis  career  by  riiilip,  v/lio  liad  previously  been  cxtend- 
in;2;  his  dominion  over  Tlicssaly,  nnd  Avho  now  assumed  the  char- 
acter of  a  chamijion  of  tlie  Delpliic  god,  and  made  his  soldiers 
wear  wreaths  of  laurel  i)lucked  in  the  groves  of  Tempc.  He  pen- 
etrated into  Thessaly,  and  encountered  the  Phocians  near  the 
gulf  of  Pngasa:.  In  the  battle  which  ensued,  Onomarchus  Avas 
slain,  and  his  army  totally  defeated  (i;.c.  352).  This  victory  made 
Philip  master  of  Thessaly.  lie  now  directed  his  march  south- 
wards  with  the  view  of  subduing  the  Phocians  ;  but,  upon  reaching 
TliermopyliC,  he  found  the  pass  guarded  by  a  strong  Athenian 
force,  and  was  compelled,  or  considered  it  more  prudent,  to  re- 
treat. 

After  his  return  from  Thessaly  Philip's  views  were  directed  to- 
wards Thrace  and  tlie  Chersonese.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  De- 
mosthenes stepped  forwards  as  the  proclaimed  opponent  of  Pliilij), 
and  delivered  the  first  of  those  celebrated  orations  which  from 
their  subject  have  been  called  "the  Phili])pics."  This  most  fa- 
mous of  all  the  Grecian  orators  was  born  in  n.c.  382-381.  Having 
lost  his  father  at  the  early  age  of  seven,  his  guardians  abused  their 
trust,  and  defrauded  him  of  the  greater  part  of  his  paternal  inlicr- 
itance.  This  misfortune,  however,  i)roved  one  of  the  causes  which 
tended  to  make  him  an  orator.  Demosthenes,  as  he  advanced  to- 
wards manhood,  perceived  with  indignation  the  conduct  of  his 
guardians,  for  which  he  resolved  to  make  them  answerable  when 
the  proper  opportunity  sliould  arrive,  by  accusing  them  himself. 
His  first  attempt  to  speak  in  public  proved  a  faihire,  and  he  retired 
from  the  bcma  amidst  the  hootings  and  laughter  of  the  citizens. 
The  more  judicious  and  candid  among  his  auditors  perceived, 
however,  marks  of  genius  in  his  speech,  and  rightly  attributed  hia 
failure  to  timidity  and  want  of  due  i)reparation.  Euuomus,  an 
aged  citizen,  who  met  him  wandering  about  the  Pira'us  in  a  stato 
of  dejection  at  his  ill-success,  bade  him  take  courage  and  jiersevcrc. 
Dcmusthenes  now  withdrew  awhile  from  public  life,  and  devoted 
himself  perseveringly  to  remedy  his  defects.  They  were  such  as 
might  be  lessened,  if  not  removed,  by  practice,  and  consisted  chief' 
ly  of  a  weak  voice,  imi)erfect  articulation,  and  ungraceful  and  iu' 
appropriate  action.  He  derived  much  assistance  from  JSatyrus  tli3 
actor,  who  exercised  him'  in  reciting  })assages  from  So])hoclcs  and 
Euripides.  He  studied  the  best  rhetorical  treatises  and  orations, 
and  is  said  to  have  copied  the  work  of  Thucydides  with  his  own 
hand  no  fewer  than  eight  times.  He  shut  himself  up  for  two  or 
tlu'ee  months  together  in  a  subterranean  chauiber  in  order  to  i>rac- 
ticc  composition  and  declamation.  His  ])erscvcrance  was  crowned 
vrith  success ;  and  he  who  ou  the  Hrst  attempt  had  descended  fronj 


B.C.  352.     DEMOSTHENES— FIRST  PKILIPPIC.  179 

tlie  bcma  amid  the  ridicule  of  the  crowd,  became  at  last  the  most 
perfect  orator  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

Demosthenes  had  established  himself  as  a  public  speaker  before 
the  period  which  we  have  now  reached ;  but  it  is  chiefly  in  con- 
nexion with  Philip  that  Ave  are  to  view  him  as  a  statesman  as  well 
as  an  orator.  Philip  had  shown  his  ambition  by  the  conquest  of 
Thessaly,  and  by  the  part  he  had  taken  in  the  Sacred  War ;  and 
Demosthenes  now  began  to  regard  him  as  the  enemy  of  the  liber- 
ties of  Athens  and  of  Greece.  In  his  first  "Philippic"  Demosthe- 
nes tried  to  rouse  his  countrj-men  to  energetic  measures  against 
this  formidable  enemy;  but  his  warnings  and  exhortations  produced 
little  effect,  for  the  Athenians  were  no  longer  distinguished  by  the 
same  spirit  of  enterprise  which  had  characterized  them  in  the  day:? 
of  their  supremacy.  No  important  step  was  taken  to  curb  the 
growing  power  of  Philip ;  and  it  was  the  danger  of  Olynthus  which 
first  induced  the  Athenians  to  prosecute  the  war  with  a  little  mora 
energy.  In  350  B.C.,  Philip  having  c«ptured  a  town  in  Chalcidicc, 
Olynthus  began  to  tremble  for  her  own  safety,  and  sent  envoys  to 
Athens  to  crave  assistance.  Olynthus  was  still  at  the  head  of 
thirty-two  Greek  towns,  and  the  confederacy  was  a  sort  of  coun- 
terpoise to  the  power  of  Philip.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  De- 
mosthenes delivered  his  three  Olynthiac  orations,  in  which  he 
warmly  advocated  an  alliance  v/ith  Olynthus. 

Demosthenes  was  opposed  by  a  strong  party,  vAih  which  Phocion 
commonly  acted.  Phocion  is  one  of  the  most  singular  and  origi- 
nal characters  in  Grecian  histoiy.  He  viewed  the  multitude  and 
their  altairs  with  a  scorn  which  he  was  at  no  pains  to  disguise  ;  re- 
ceiving their  anger  with  indifference,  and  their  praises  with  con- 
tempt. His  known  probity  also  gave  him  weight  with  the  assembly- 
He  was  the  only  statesman  of  whom  Demosthenes  stood  in  awe ; 
who  was  accustomed  to  say,  when  Phocion  rose,  "Here  comes  tho 
pruner  of  my  periods."  But  Phocion's  desponding  views,  and  his. 
mistrust  of  the  Athenian  people,  made  him  an  ill  statesman  at  a 
period  which  demanded  the  most  active  patriotism.  He  doubtless 
injured  his  country  by  contributing  to  check  the  more  enlarged 
and  patriotic  views  of  Demosthenes ;  and  though  his  own  conduct 
was  pure  and  disinterested,  he  unintentionally  threw  his  weight 
on  the  side  of  those  who,  like  Demades  and  others,  were  actuated 
by  the  basest  motives.  This  division  of  opinion  rendered  the  op- 
erations of  the  Athenians  for  the  aid  of  the  Olynthians  languid 
and  desultory.  Town  after  town  of  the  confederacy  fell  before 
Philip  ;  and  in  347  Olynthus  itself  Avas  taken.  The  whole  of  the 
Chalcidian  peninsula  thus  became  a  Macedonian  fvfovince. 

The  prospects  of  Athens  now  became  alarming.    Her  possession* 


180  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XIX 

in  the  Chersonese  were  threatened,  as  well  as  the  freedom  of  the 
Greek  towns  upon  the  IIelles])ont.*  Tlie  Athenians  had  supported 
the  Phocians  in  the  Sacred  War,  and  were  thus  at  war  with  Thebes. 
In  order  to  resist  Philip,  the  attention  of  the  Athenians  was  now 
directed  towards  a  reconciliation  with  Thebes,  especially  since  the 
trea,sures  of  Delphi  were  nearly  exhausted,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  war  was  becoraing  every  year  more  and  more  burthensome  to 
tlie  Thebans.  Nor  did  it  seem  inii)rol)able  that  a  peace  niiglit  be 
concluded  not  only  between  those  two  cities,  but  amonp  the  Grecian 
states  j^enerally.  It  seems  to  have  been  this  aspect  of  affairs  that 
induced  Philip  to  make  several  indirect  overtures  to  the  Athenians 
in  the  summer  of  B.C.  317.  In  sjjite  of  subsidies  from  Delphi  the 
Avar  had  been  very  onerous  to  them,  and  they  received  these  ad- 
vances with  joy,  and  eventually  agreed  to  the  terms  of  a  j)eacc. 
Having  thus  gained  over  the  Athenians,  Philip  marched  through 
Thermopylaj  and  entered  Phocis,  which  surrendered  uncondition- 
ally at  his  approach.  He  then  occupied  Delphi,  where  he  assem- 
bled the  Am])hietyons  to  pronounce  sentence  upon  those  who  had 
been  concerned  in  the  sacrilege  committed  there.  The  council  de- 
creed tliat  all  the  cities  of  Phocis,  cxce])t  Abre,  should  be  destroy- 
ed, and  their  inliabitants  scattered  into  villages  containing  not 
more  than  lifty  houses  each.  Sparta  was  deprived  of  her  share  in 
the  Amphictyonic  privileges;  the  two  votes  in  the  council  possess- 
ed by  tlic  Phocians  were  transferred  to  the  kings  of  Macedonia; 
and  Philip  Avas  to  share  with  the  Thebans  and  Thessalians  the 
honor  of  presiding  at  the  Pythian  games  (u.c.  MG). 

The  result  of  the  Sacred  "War  rendered  IMncedon  the  leading 
state  in  Greece.  Philip  at  once  acquired  by  it  military  glory,  a 
reputation  for  piety,  and  an  accession  of  power.  His  ambitious 
designs  were  now  too  i)lain  to  be  mistaken.  The  eyes  of  the  blind- 
est among  the  Athenians  wex'c  at  last  o]iened;  the  promoters  of 
the  peace  which  had  been  concluded  with  I'hilip  incurred  the  ha- 
tred anel  sus])icion  of  the  jieojilc,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  De- 
mosthenes rose  higher  than  ever  in  public  favour. 

I'hilip  was  now  busy  with  preparations  for  the  vast  ))rojects  which 
he  contemplated,  and  which  embraced  an  attack  upon  the  Athenian 
colonies,  as  well  as  upon  the  Persian  empire.  For  this  i)uri>ose  he 
hail  organized  a  consideiable  naval  force  as  well  as  an  army,  and 
in  the  sjjring  of  312  u.c.  he  set  out  on  an  exi)edition  against  Thrace. 
His  jirogress  soon  ajjpeared  to  menace  the  Chersonese  and  the 
Athenian  possessions  in  that  quarter,  and  at  length  the  Athenian 
troojts  under  Diopithes  came  into  actual  collision  with  tlie  Mace- 
donians. In  the  folh)wing  year  Philij)  began  to  attack  the  Greek 
eities  north  of  the  IIellcs])ont.      He  fu'st  besieged  and  capture^ 


B.C.  338.  BATTLE  OF  CII^RONEA.  181 

Selymbria  on  the  Propontis,  and  then  turned  his  arms  against 
Perinthus  and  Byzantium.  This  roused  the  Athenians  to  more 
vigorous  action.  War  was  formally  declared  against  Philip,  and 
a  fleet  equipijcd  for  the  immediate  relief  of  Byzantium.  I'hilif 
v/as  forced  to  raise  the  siege  not  only  of  that  town,  but  of  Perin- 
thus also,  and  finally  to  evacuate  the  Chersonesus  altogether 
For  these  acceptable  services  the  grateful  Byzantians  erected  a 
colossal  statue  in  honor  of  Athens. 

After  this  check  Philip  undertook  an  expedition  against  tho 
Thracians ;  but  meantime  his  partisans  procured  for  him  an  op- 
portunity of  marching  again  into  the  very  heart  of  Greece. 

Amphissa,  a  Locrian  town,  having  been  declared  by  the  Am- 
p'h"ctyonic  council  guilty  of  sacrilege,  Philip  was  appointed  by  tlic 
council  as  their  general  to  inflict  punishment  on  the  inhabitants  of 
the  guilty  town.  Accordingly,  he  marched  southwards  early  in 
r.c.  338  ;  but,  instead  of  proceeding  in  the  direction  of  Amphissa, 
he  suddenly  seized  Elatea,  the  chief  town  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Phocis,  thus  showing  clearly  enough  that  his  real  design  was 
against  Boeotia  and  Attica.  Intelligence  of  this  event  reached 
Athens  at  night,  and  caused  extraordinary  alarm.  In  the  follow- 
ing morning  Demosthenes  pressed  upon  the  assembly  the  neces- 
sity for  making  the  most  vigorous  preparations  for  defence,  and 
especially  recommended  them  to  send  an  embassy  to  Thebes,  in 
order  to  persiiade  the  Thebans  to  unite  with  them  against  the 
common  enemy. 

The  details  of  the  war  that  iEbllowed  are  exceedingly  obscure. 
Philip  appears  to  have  again  opened  negotiations  with  the  Thebans, 
which  failed ;  and  we  then  find  the  combined  Theban  and  Athcniai'i 
armies  marching  out  to  meet  the  Macedonians.  The  decisive  bat- 
tie  was  fought  on  the  7th  of  August,  in  the  plain  of  Chteronea  in 
Bceotia,  near  the  frontier  of  Phocis  (b.c.  338).  In  the  Macedonian 
army  was  Philip's  son,  the  youthful  Alexander,  who  was  intrusted 
with  the  command  of  one  of  the  wings  ;  and  it  was  a  charge  made 
by  him  on  the  Theban  sacred  band  that  decided  the  fortune  of  the 
day.  The  sacred  band  Avas  cut  to  pieces,  without  flinching  from 
the  ground  Avhich  it  occupied,  and  the  remainder  of  the  combined 
army  was  completely  routed.  Demosthenes,  who  was  serving  as  a 
foot-soldier  in  the  Athenian  ranks,  has  been  absurdly  reproached 
with  cowardice  because  he  participated  in  the  general  flight. 

The  battle  of  Chceronea  crushed  the  liberties  of  Greece,  and 
made  it,  in  reality,  a  province  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy.  To 
Athens  herself  the  blow  was  almost  as  fatal  as  that  of  ^"Egospotami. 
But  the  manner  in  which  Philip  used  his  victory  excited  universal 
sui-prise.     He  dismissed  the  Athenian  prisoners  without  random, 


to 


182  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.    •         Chap.  XIX. 

and  voluntarily  offered  a  peace  on  terms  more  advantageous  than 
the  Athenians  themselves  would  have  ventured  to  })roi)0.sc.  Phil- 
ij),  indeed,  seems  to  have  regarded  Athens  with  a  sort  of  love 
and  respect,  as  the  centre  of  art  and  refinement,  for  his  treatment 
of  the  Thebans  was  very  different,  and  marked  by  great  harshness 
and  severity.  They  were  compelled  to  recall  their  exiles,  iu 
whose  hands  the  government  was  ])laced,  whilst  a  Macedonian 
arrison  was  established  in  the  Cadmea. 

A  congress  of  the  Grecian  states  was  now  summoned  at  Cor- 
inth, in  which  war  was  declared  against  Persia,  and  Philip  was 
ai))iointcd  generalissimo  of  the  expedition. 

In  the  si)ring  of  n.c.  3oG  Philip  sent  some  forces  into  Asia,  under 
the  command  of  Attains,  Parmenio,  and  Amyntas,  which  were 
designed  to  engage  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  in  tlie  expedition.  Put, 
before  quitting  Macedonia,  Philip  determined  to  j'rovide  for  the 
safety  of  his  dominions  by  celebrating  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
with  Alexander  of  Epirus.  It  was  solemnized  at  ^Egrc,  the  ancient 
capital  of  Macedonia,  with  much  jjomp,  including  banquets,  and 
musical  and  theatrical  entertainments.  The  day  after  the  nuptials 
was  dedicated  to  theatrical  entertainments.  The  festival  was 
opened  witli  a  procession  of  the  images  of  the  twelve  Olyrajjian 
deities,  with  which  was  associated  that  of  Philip  himself.  TliQ. 
monarch  took  part  in  the  procession,  dressed  in  Avhite  robes,  and 
crowned  with  a  chaplet.  Whilst  thus  proceeding  through  the  city, 
a  youth  suddenly  rushed  out  of  tlie  crowd,  and,  drawing  a  long 
sword  which  he  had  concealed  under  his  clothes,  i)lunged  it  into 
Pliili])'s  side,  who  fell  dead  upon  the  s])Ot.  The  assassin  was  ]»ur- 
sued  by  some  of  the  royal  guards,  and,  having  stumbled  in  his  flight, 
was  despatched  before  he  could  reach  the  place  where  horses  had 
been  provided  for  his  escape.  His  name  was  Pausanias.  He  Avas 
a  youth  of  noble  birth,  and  we  arc  told  that  his  motive  for  taking 
Philip's  life  was  that  tlic  king  had  refused  to  jjunish  an  outrage 
which  Attains  had  committed  against  him. 

Thus  fell  I'liilip  of  Macedon,  in  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  his 
reign  and  forty-seventh  of  his  age  (n.c.  330).  AVhcn  we  rcHcct 
upon  his  achievements,  and  how,  partly  by  i)o]icy  and  jiarily  by 
arms,  lie  converted  his  originally  poor  and  distracted  kingdom  into 
the  mistress  of  Greece,  we  must  acknowledge  him  to  have  been  an 
extraordinary,  if  not  a  great  man,  In  the  better  sense  of  that  tenn. 
His  views  and  his  ambition  were  certainly  as  large  as  those  of  his 
son  Alexander,  but  he  was  in-evented  by  a  jtreuniture  death  from 
carrying  them  out ;  nor  would  Alexander  liimself  have  been  able 
to  perform  his  great  achievements  had  not  Philip  handed  down  to 
him  all  tlie  means  and  instruments  which  they  required. 


Coin  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
CHAPTER  XX. 

ALEXANDER   THE    GREAT,  B.C.  336-323. 

Alexander,  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death,  was  in  his  twen- 
tieth year,  having  been  born  in  b.c.  356.  His  early  education 
was  entrusted  to  Leonidas,  a  kinsman  of  his  mother,  a  man  of  se- 
vere and  parsimonious  character,  who  trained  him  with  Spartan 
simplicity  and  hardiliood ;  whilst  Lysimachus,  a  sort  of  under- 
governor,. early  inspired  the  young  prince  with  ambitious  notions, 
by  teaching  him  to  love  and  emulate  the  heroes  of  the  Hiad.  Ac- 
cording to  the  traditions  of  his  family,  the  blood  of  Achilles  actu- 
ally ran  in  the  veins  of  Alexander;*  and  Lysimachus  noui'ished 
the  feeling  which  that  circumstance  was  calculated  to  awaken  by 
giving  him  the  name  of  that  hero,  whilst  he  called  Philip  Peleus, 
and  himself  Phoenix.  But  the  most  striking  feature  in  Alexan- 
der's education  was,  that  he  had  Aristotle  for  his  teacher,  and 
that  thus  the  greatest  conqueror  of  the  material  world  received 
the  instructions  of  him  who  has  exercised  the  most  extensive  em- 
pire over  the  human  intellect.  It  was  probably  at  about  the  age 
of  thirteen  that  he  first  received  the  lessons  of  Aristotle,  and  they 
can  hardly  have  continued  more  than  three  years,  for  Alexander 
soon  left  the  schools  for  the  employments  of  active  life.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  we  find  him  regent  of  Macedonia  during  Philip's 
absence ;  and  at  eighteen  we  have  seen  him  filling  a  prominent 
military  post  at  the  battle  of  Chajronca. 

On  succeeding  to  the  throne  Alexander  announced  his  inten- 
tion of  prosecuting  his  fatiier  s  expedition  into  Asia ;  but  it  was 
first  necessary  for  him  to  settle  the  affairs  of  Greece,  where  the 
news  of  Philip's  assassination,  and  the  accession  of  so  young  a 
prince,  had  excited  in  several  states  a  hope  of  shaking  off  the 

*  His  mother  Olympias  was  the  daughter  of  Neoptolcmus,  king  of  Epirus,  Avh« 
elairaed  descent  from  Pyn'hus,  the  son  of  Achines. 


184  IIISTOIIY  OF  GllEECE.  Chap.  XX, 

Macedonian  yoke.  Athens  was  tlie  centre  of  these  movements. 
Demosthenes,  altlioii^li  in  niovirnin;;  for  the  recent  loss  of  an  only 
daughter,  now  came  abroad  dressed  in  Avliite,  and  crowned  with  a 
chaplet,  in  which  attire  lie  was  seen  sacrificing  at  one  of  the  jnib- 
lic  altars.  He  also  moved  a  decree  that  rhilij/s  death  should  be 
celebrated  by  a  public  thanksgiving,  and  that  religious  honours 
should  be  paid  to  the  memory  of  Tausanias.  At  tlic  same  time 
he  made  vigorous  preparations  for  action.  He  despatched  en- 
voys to  the  principal  Grecian  states  for  the  purpose  of  inciting 
tliem  against  JNIacedon.  Sparta,  and  the  whole  Peloponnesus, 
with  tlic  exception  of  Megalopolis  and  Messenia,  seemed  inclined 
to  shake  olT  their  compulsory  alliance.  Even  the  Thebans  rose 
against  tlie  dominant  oligarchy,  although  the  Cadmea  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Macedonians. 

The  activity  of  Alexander  disconcerted  all  these  movements. 
Having  marched  through  Thcssaly,  he  assembled  the  Amjthicty- 
onic  council  atThermopyhc,  Avho  conferred  ujxm  him  the  command 
with  which  they  had  invested  his  father  during  the  Sacred  War. 
He  then  advanced  rapidly  upon  Thebes,  and  thus  prevented  the 
meditated  revolution.  The  Athenians  sent  ambassadors  to  depre- 
cate his  wrath,  who  were  graciously  accepted.  He  then  convened 
a  general  congress  at  Corinth,  where  he  was  appointed  general- 
issimo for  the  Persian  war  in  place  of  his  father.  ^Most  of  the  phi- 
losophers and  persons  of  note  near  Corinth  came  to  congratulate 
him  on  this  occasion ;  but  Diogenes  of  Sinope,  who  was  then  liv- 
ing in  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Corinth,  did  not  make  his  appear- 
ance. Alexander,  thcrefure,  resolved  to  jjay  a  visit  to  the  eccen- 
tric cynic,  whom  he  found  basking  in  the  sun.  On  tlie  approach 
of  Alexander  Avith  a  numerous  retinue,  Diogenes  raised  himself 
lip  a  little,  and  the  monarch  affably  inquired  how  he  could  serve 
him?  "Py  standing  out  of  my  sunsliine,"  replied  the  churlish 
philosopher.  Alexander  was  struck  with  surprise  at  a  behaviour 
to  wliich  he  was  so  little  accustomed ;  but,  whilst  his  courtiers 
were  ridiculing  the  manners  of  the  cynic,  he  turned  to  them  and 
said,  "Were  I  not  Alexander,  I  should  like  to  be  Diogenes." 

The  result  of  the  Congix'ss  might  l)e  considered  a  settlement 
of  tlie  affairs  of  Greece.  Alexander  then  returned  to  IMaccdonia 
in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  begin  his  Persian  expedition  in  the 
spring  of  0.0.335;  but  reports  of  disturbances  among  the  Thra- 
cians  and  Triballians  diverted  his  attention  to  that  quarter.  Ho 
therefore  crossed  Mount  Ihtmus  (the  I'alkan)  and  marched  into 
the  territory  of  the  Triballians,  defeated  their  forces,  and  j)ursued 
them  to  the  Danube,  whicli  he  crossed.  After  acquiring  n  largo 
booty  he  regained  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  thence  marched 


B.C.  335.  CAPTURE  OF  THEBES.  185 

against  the  Illyrians  and  Tanlantians,  wliom  he  speedily  reduced 
to  obedience. 

During  Alexander's  absence  on  these  expeditions  no  tidings  were 
heard  of  him  for  a  considerable  time,  and  a  report  of  his  death  was 
industriously  spread  in  Southern  Greece.  The  Thcbans  rose  and 
besieged  the  Macedonian  garrison  in  the  Cadiuea,  at  the  same  time 
inviting  other  states  to  declare  their  independence.  Demosthenes 
was  active  in  aiding  the  movement.  He  persuaded  the  Athenians 
to  furnish  the  Thebans  -with  subsidies,  and  to  assure  them  of  their 
Bup])ort  and  alliance..  But  the  rapidity  of  Alexander  again  crushed 
the  insurrection  in  the  bud.  Before  the  Thebans  discovered  that 
the  rei)ort  of  his  death  was  false  he  had  already  arrived  at  On- 
chestus  in  Ba:;otia,  Alexander  was  willing  to  afford  them  an  o])por- 
tunity  for  repentance,  and  marched  slowly  to  the  foot  of  the  Cad- 
mea.  But  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection,  believing  themselves 
irretrievably  compromised,  replied  with  taunts  to  Alexander's  pro- 
posals for  peace,  and  excited  the  people  to  the  most  desperate  re- 
sistance. An  engagement  was  prematurely  brought  on  by  one  of 
the  generals  of  Alexander,  in  which  some  of  the  Macedonian  troops 
Avere  put  to  the  rout ;  but  Alexander,  coming  up  with  the  phalanx, 
whilst  the  Thebans  were  in  the  disorder  of  pursuit,  drove  them  back 
in  turn,  and  entered  the  gates  along  with  them,  when  a  fearful 
massacre  ensued,  committed  principally  by  the  Thracians  in  Al- 
exander's service.  Six  thousand  Thebans  are  said  to  have  been 
slain,  and  thirty  thousand  were  made  prisoners.  The  doom  of  the 
conquered  city  was  referred  to  the  allies,  who  decreed  her  destruc- 
tion. The  grounds  of  the  verdict  bear  the  impress  of  a  tyrannical 
hypocrisy.  They  rested  on  the  conduct  of  the  Thebans  during  the 
Persian  war,  on  their  treatment  of  Plata^a,  and  on  their  enmity  to 
Athens.  The  inhabitants  were  sold  as  slaves,  and  all  the  houses, 
except  that  of  Pindar,  were  levelled  with  the  ground.  The  Cadmea 
was  preserved  to  be  occupied  by  a  Macedonian  garrison.  Thebes 
seems  to  have  been  thiis  harshly  treated  as  an  example  to  the  rest 
of  Greece,  for  towards  the  otlier  states,  which  were  now  eager  to 
4nake  their  excuses  and  submission,  Alexander  showed  much  for- 
bearance and  lenity.  The  conduct  of  the  Athenians  exhibits  them 
deeply  sunk  in  degradation.  When  they  heard  of  the  chastisement 
inflicted  uijon  Thebes,  they  immediately  voted,  on  the  motion  of 
Demosthenes,  that  ambassadors  should  be  sent  to  congratulate 
Alexander  on  his  safe  return  from  his  northern  expeditions,  and  on 
his  recent  success.  Alexander,  in  reply,  Avrote  a  letter,  demanding 
that  eight  or  ten  of  the  leading  Athenian  orators  sliould  be  deliv- 
ered up  to  him.  At  the  head  of  the  list  was  Demosthenes.  In 
<Ms  dileroma,  Phocion,  who  did  not  wish  to  speak  upon  such  a 


18G  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XX 

<]uestion,  was  loudly  called  upon  by  the  people  for  his  opinion ; 
when  he  rose  and  said  that  tlie  persons  uhom  Alexander  demanded 
had  brouirht  the  state  into  sucli  a  niiseralilc  jdiglit  that  tliey  de- 
served to  be  svuTcndercd,  and  that,  for  his  own  jiart,  he  should  be 
very  happy  to  die  for  the  commonwealth.  At  the  same  time,  he 
advised  them  to  try  the  effect  of  intercession  with  Alexander ;  and 
it  was  at  last  only  by  his  own  personal  apjilication  to  that  monarch, 
with  whom  he  was  a  great  favourite,  that  the  orators  were  spared. 
According  to  another  account,  however,  the  wrath  of  Alexander 
was  appeased  by  the  orator  Dcmadcs,  who  received  from  the  Athe- 
nians a  reward  ot  five  talents  for  his  services.  It  was  at  this  time 
tliat  Alexander  is  said  to  have  sent  a  i)resent  of  100  talents  to 
riiocion.  But  Phocion  asked  the  persons  who  brought  the  money 
"why  ho  should  be  selected  for  such  a  bounty?"  "Because," 
they  replied,  "Alexander  considers  you  the  only  just  and  honest 
man."  "Then,"  said  Thocion,  "let  him  suffer  me  to  lie  what  I 
seem,  and  to  retain  that  character."  And  when  the  envoys  went 
to  his  house  and  beheld  the  frugality  with  which  he  lived,  tliey 
perceived  that  the  man  who  refused  such  a  gift  was  wealthier  than 
he  who  offered  it. 

Having  thus  i)ut  the  affairs  of  Greece  on  a  satisfactory  footing, 
Alexander  marched  for  the  Ilellcspont  in  the  spring  of  li.c.  334, 
leaving  Antipater  regent  of  JSIacedonia  in  his  absence,  with  a  force 
of  12,000  foot  and  1500  horse.  Alexander's  own  army  consisted 
of  only  about  30,000  foot  and  .5000  horse.  Of  the  infantry  about 
12,000  were  Macedonians,  and  these  composed  the  pitli  of  the  cel- 
ebrated Macedonian  phalanx.  Such  was  the  force  with  which  he 
proposed  to  attack  the  immense  but  ill-cemcntcd  empire  of  Persia, 
which,  like  the  empires  of  Turkey  or  Austria  in  modern  times, 
consisted  of  various  nations  and  races  with  different  religions  and 
manners,  and  speaking  different  languages  ;  the  only  bond  of 
union  being  the  dominant  military  ])Owcr  of  the  ruling  nation, 
which  itself  formed  only  a  small  numerical  portion  of  the  empire. 
The  remote  provinces,  like  those  of  Asia  Minor,  were  administer- 
ed by  satraps  and  military  governors  who  enjoyed  an  almost  inde- 
pendent autliority.  Before  Alexander  de]>artcd  he  distributed 
most  of  the  crown  property  among  his  friends,  and  when  Ferdic" 
cas  asked  him  what  he  had  reserved  for  himself,  he  replied,  "My 
hopes." 

A  march  of  sixteen  days  brought  Alexan<lcr  to  Sestos,  where 
a  large  licet  and  a  number  of  transports  liad  been  collected  for 
the  embarkation  of  bis  army.  He  steered  with  his  own  hand  the 
vessel  in  which  he  sailed  towards  the  very  spot  where  the  Aduvana 
were  said  to  have  landed  when  proceeding  to  the  Trojan  war. 


C.  334.  BATTLE  OF  THE  GRANICUS.  18? 

He  wn,s,  as  v/e  have  said,  a  great  admirer  of  Homer,  a  copy  of 
.  whose  Avoiks  he  always  carried  with  him ;  and  on  landing  on  the 
Asiatic  coast  he  made  it  his  first  business  to  visit  the  plain  of 
Troy.  Ho  then  proceeded  to  Sigeum,  where  he  crowned  with  a 
garland  the  pillar  said  to  mark  the  tumulus  of  his  niytliical  ances- 
tor Achilles,  and,  according  to  custom,  ran  round  it  naked  with 
his  friends. 

Alexander  then  marched  northwards  along  the  coast  of  the  PrO" 
pontis.  The  satraps  of  Lydia  and  Ionia,  together  with  other  Per- 
sian generals,  were  encamped  on  the  Eiver  Granicus,  with  a  force 
of  20,000  Greek  mercenaries,  and  about  an  equal  number  of  na- 
tive cavalry,  with  which  they  prepared  to  dispute  the  passage  of 
the  river.  A  Rhodian,  named  Memnon,  had  the  chief  command. 
The  veteran  general  Parmenio  advised  Alexander  to  delay  the 
attack  till  tlie  following  morning;  to  Mliich  he  rejdied  that  it 
would  be  a  bad  omen  at  the  beginning  of  his  expedition,  if,  after 
])assing  the  Hellespont,  he  should  be  stopped  by  a  paltry  stream. 
Thereupon  he  directed  his  cavalry  to  cross  the  river,  and  followed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  phalanx.  The  passage,  however,  was 
by  no  means  easy.  The  stream  was  in  many  parts  so  deep  as  to 
be  hardly  fordable,  and  the  opposite  bank  was  steep  and  rugged. 
The  cavalry  had  great  difficulty  in  maintaining  their  ground^  till 
Alexander  came  up  to  their  relief.  He  immediately  charged  into 
the  thickest  of  the  fray,  and  exposed  himself  so  much  that  his  life 
was  often  in  imminent  danger,  and  on  one  occasion  was  saved 
only  by  the  interposition  of  his  friend  Clitus.  Having  routed  tlie 
Persians,  he  next  attacked  the  Greek  mercenaries,  2000  of  whom 
were  made  prisoners,  and  the  rest  nearly  all  cut  to  pieces.  In 
this  engagement  he  killed  two  Persian"  officers  with  his  own 
hand. 

Alexander  now  marched  southwards  towards  Sardis,  which  sur- 
rendered before  he  came  within  sight  of  its  walls.  Having  left  a 
garrison  in  tluit  city,  he  arrived  after  a  four  days'  march  before 
Epliesus,  which  likewise  capitulated  on  liis  approach.  Magnesia, 
Tralles,  and  Miletus  next  fell  into  his  hands,  the  last  after  a  short 
3iege.  Halicarnassus  m.ade  more  resistance.  It  was  obliged  to  be 
regularly  approached ;  but  at  length  i\Iemnon,  finding  it  no  longer 
tenable,  set  fire  to  it  in  the  night,  and  crossed  over  to  Cos.  Al- 
exander caused  it  to  be  razed  to  the  ground,  and  pursued  his 
march  along  the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  view  of 
seizing  those  towns  which  might  afiord  shelter  to  a  Persian  fleet. 
The  v/intcr  was  now  approaching,  and  Alexander  sent  a  consider- 
able part  of  his  army  under  Parmenio  into  winter-quarters  at  Sardis. 
^e  also  sent  back  to  Macedonia  such  officers  and  soldiers  as  had 


1138  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XX. 

been  recently  married,  on  condition  that  thcr  shonld  return  in  the 
spring  with  what  re-cnforccinents  they  could  raise  ;  and  with  the 
same  view  he  despatched  an  officer  to  recruit  in  the  Pelo])onnesus. 
IVIcanwhile  he  liimself,  with  a  chosen  body,  proceeded  along  the 
coasts  of  Lycia  and  I'amphylia,  having  instructed  Parmenio  to 
rejoin  him  in  Phrygia  in  the  spriug  with  the  main  body.  After  he 
had  crossed  the  Xanthus  most  of  the  Lycian  towns  tendered  their 
submission.  ,0n  the  borders  of  Lycia  and  Pamphylia,  Mount  Cli- 
max, a  branch  of  the  Taurus  range,  runs  abruptly  into  the  sea,  leav- 
ing only  a  narrow  passage  at  its  foot,  which  is  frequently  over- 
flowed. This  was  the  case  at  the  time  of  Alexander's  approach.  He 
therefore  sent  his  main  body  by  a  long  and  difficult  road  across 
the  mountains  to  Perge  ;  but  he  himself,  who  loved  danger  for  its 
own  sake,  proceeded  with  a  chosen  band  along  the  shore,  wading 
throua;h  water  that  was  breast-liigh  for  ncarlv  a  whole  dav.  Tlicn 
forcing  liis  way  northwards  through  the  barbarous  tribes  which 
inhabited  the  mountains  of  Pisidia,  he  encamped  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Gordium  in  Phrygia.  Here  he  was  rejoined  by  Parmenio 
and  by  the  new  levies  from  Greece.  Gordium  had  been  the  capital 
of  the  early  Phrygian  kings,  and  in  it  was  preserved  with  super- 
stitious veneration  the  chariot  or  wa?,on  in  which  the  celebrated 
JNiidas,  the  son  of  Gordins,  together  with  his  parents,  had  entered 
the  town,  and,  in  conformity  with  an  oracle,  had  been  elevated  to 
the  monarchy.  An  ancient  prophecy  promised  the  sovereignty  of 
Asia  to  him  who  should  untie  the  knot  of  bark  which  fastened  the 
yoke  of  the  wagon  to  the  ])ole.  Alexander  rcjjaired  to  the  Acrop- 
olis, where  the  wagon  was  ])reservcd,  to  attempt  this  adventure. 
Wlicther  he  undid  the  knot  by  drawing  out  a  peg,  or  cut  it  through 
with  his  sword,  is  a  matter  of  doubt ;  but  that  he  had  fulfdlcd  the 
prediction  was  ])laccd  beyond  dispute  tliat  very  night  by  a  great 
storm  of  thunder  and  lightning. 

In  the  sjjring  of  333  Alexander  pursued  his  march  eastwards, 
and  on  arriving  at  Ancyra  received  the  submission  of  the  Paphla- 
ponians.  He  then  advanced  through  Cappadocia  without  resist- 
ance ;  and  forcing  his  way  througli  the  passes  of  jNIount  Taurus 
(the  Pjila-  CUicu'.:),  he  descended  into  the  jdains  of  Cilicia.  Hcnco 
he  pushed  on  rapidly  to  Tarsus,  which  he  found  abandoned  by  tho 
enemy.  Whilst  still  heated  with  the  march,  Alexander  plunged 
into  the  clear  but  cold  stream  of  the  Cvdnus,  which  runs  bv  the 
town.  The  result  Avas  a  fever,  Avhich  soon  became  so  violent  as 
to  tlireaten  his  life.  An  Acaruanian  physician,  named  Piiilip,  who 
accompanied  him,  prcscri])cd  a  remedy  ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
Alexander  received  a  letter  informing  him  tluit  IMiilip  had  been 
bribed  by  Darius,  tlic  Persian  king,  to  poison  him.      He  had,  liow- 


B.C.  833.  BATTLE  OF  ISSUS.  189 

ever,  too  much  confidence  in  the  trusty  Philip  to  believe  the  accu- 
sation, and  handed  him  the  letter  .whilst  he  drank  the  draught. 
Either  the  medicine,  or  Alexander's  youthful  constitution,  at  length 
triumphed  over  the  disorder.  After  remaining  some  time  at  Tarsus, 
he  continued  his  march  along  the  coast  to  Mallus,  where  he  first 
received  certain  tidings  of  the  great  Persian  army,  commanded  by 
Darius  in  person.  It  is  said  to  have  consisted  of  600,000  fighting 
men,  besides  all  that  train  of  attendants  which  usually  accompanied 
the  march  of  a  Persian  monarch.  Alexander  found  Darius  en- 
camped near  Issus,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  little  river  Pintirus. 
The  Persian  king  could  hardly  have  been  caught  in  a  more  unfa- 
vourable position,  since  the  narrow  and  rugged  plain  between 
Mount  Amanus  and  the  sea  afforded  no  scope  for  the  evolutions 
of  large  bodies,  and  thus  entirely  deprived  him  of  the  advantage 
of  his  numerical  superiority.  Alexander  occupied  the  pass  be- 
tween Syria  and  Cilicia  at  midnight,  and  at  daybreak  began  to  de- 
scend into  the  plain  of  the  Pinarus,  ordering  his  troops  to  deploy 
into  line  as  the  ground  expanded,  and  thus  to  arrive  in  battle-array 
before  the  Persians.  Darius  had  thrown  80,000  cavalry  and  20,000 
infantry  across  the  river,  to  check  the  advance  of  the  Macedonians ; 
whilst  on  the  right  bank  w'cre  drawn  up  his  choicest  Persian  troops 
to  the  number  of  G0,000,  together  with  30,000  Greek  mercenaries, 
who  formed  the  centre,  and  on  whom  he  chiefly  relied.  These,  it 
appears,  were  all  that  the  breadth  of  the  plain  allowed  to  be  drawn 
up  in  line.  The  remainder  of  tlie  vast  host  were  posted  in  separate 
bodies  in  the  farther  parts  of  the  plain,  and  were  tmable  to  take 
any  share  in  the  combat.  Darius  placed  himself  in  the  centre  of 
the  line  in  a  magnificent  state  chariot.  The  banks  of  the  Pinarus 
w^ere  in  many  parts  steep,  and  where  they  were  level  Darius  had 
caused  them  to  be  intrenc.hed.  As  Alexander  advanced,  the  Per- 
sian cavalry  which  had  been  thrown  across  the  river  were  recalled  ; 
but  the  20,000  infantry  had  been  driven  into  the  mountains,  wher(i 
Alexander  held  them  in  check  with  a  small  body  of  horse.  The 
left  wing  of  the  JMacedonians,  under  the  command  of  Parmeiiio, 
was  ordered  to  ke^p  near  tlie  sea,  to  prevent  being  outflanked. 
The  right  wing  was  led  by  Alexander  in  person,  who  rushed  im- 
petuously into  the  water,  and  was  soon  engaged  in  close  combat 
with  the  Persians.  The  latter  were  immediately  routed  ;  but  what 
chiefly  decided  the  fortune  of  the  day  Avas  the  timidity  of  Darius 
himself,  who,  on  beholding  the  defeat  of  his  left  wing,  immediately 
took  to  flight.  His  example  was  followed  by  his  whole  army. 
One  hundred  thousand  Persians  are  said  to  have  been  left  upon  the 
field.  On  reaching  the  hills  Darius  threw  aside  his  royal  robes, 
Ixis  bow  and  shield,  and,  mounting  a  fleet  courser    was  soon  out 


190  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  CiiAr.  XX. 

of  reach  of  pursuit.  The  rersian  camp  became  the  spoil  of  tlio 
Macedonians;  but  the  tent  of  Darius,  together  with  his  cliariot, 
robes,  and  arms,  -was  reserved  for  Alexander  himself.  It  was  now 
that  the  Macedonian  king  first  had  ocular  proof  of  the  nature  of 
Eastern  royalty.  One  compartment  of  the  tent  of  Darius  had 
been  fitted  up  as  a  bath,  Avhich  steamed  with  the  richest  odours, 
whilst  another  presented  a  magnificent  i)avilion,  containing  a  ta- 
ble richly  spread  for  the  banquet  of  Darius.  But  from  an  adjoin- 
ing tent  issued  the  wail  of  female  voices,  Avhcre  Sisygambis  the 
mother,  and  Statira  the  wife  of  Darius,  were  lamenting  the  sup- 
posed death  of  the  Persian  monarch.  Alexander  sent  to  assure 
them  of  his  safety,  and  ordered  them  to  be  treated  with  the  most 
delicate  and  respectful  attention. 

Such  was  the  memorable  battle  of  Issus,  fought  in  November, 
B.C.  338.  A  large  treasure  which  Parmenio  was  sent  forward  with 
a  detachment  to  seize,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Macedonians  at 
Damascus.  Another  favourable  result  of  the  victory  was  that  it 
suppressed  some  attempts  at  revolt  from  the  Macedonian  power, 
whicli,  Avith  the  su]>j)ort  of  Persia,  had  been  manifested  in  Greece. 
But,  in  order  to  put  a  complete  stop  to  all  such  intrigues,  which 
chiefly  depended  on  the  assistance  of  a  Persian  fleet,  Alexander 
resolved  to  seize  Phanicia  and  Egypt,  and  thus  to  strike  at  the 
root  of  the  Persian  maritime  power. 

Meanwhile,  Darius,  attended  by  a  body  of  only  4000  fugitives, 
had  crossed  the  Euphrates  at  Thapsacus.  Before  lie  had  set  out 
from  Babylon  the  whole  forces  of  the  empire  had  been  summoned  ; 
but  he  had  not  thought  it  worth  while  to  wait  for  what  he  deemed 
a  mcrelv  useless  encumbrance  ;  and  the  more  distant  levies,  whicli 
comprised  some  of  the  best  troojjs  of  the  cmi)irc,  were  still  hasten- 
ing towards  Babylon.  In  a  short  time,  tlierefore,  he  would  be  at 
the  head  of  a  still  more  numerous  host  than  that  which  had  fought 
at  Issus  ;  yet  he  thought  it  safer  to  open  negotiations  with  Alex- 
ander than  to  trust  to  the  chance  of  arms.  "With  this  view  he 
sent  a  letter  to  Alexander,  who  was  now  at  IMarathus  in  Phoenicia, 
proposing  to  become  his  friend  and  ally;  but  Alexander  rejected 
all  his  overtures,  and  told  him  that  he  must  in  future  be  addressed, 
not  in  the  language  of  an  equal,  but  of  a  subject. 

As  Alexander  advanced  southwards,  all  the  towns  of  Phoenicia 
hastened  to  open  their  gates  ;  the  inhabitants  of  Sidon  even  hailed 
him  as  their  deliverer.  Tyre  also  sent  to  tender  her  submission, 
but  coupled  Avith  reservations  by  no  means  accei)table  to  a  youth- 
ful conqueror  in  the  fidl  tide  of  success.  Alexander  affected  to 
receive  their  olV.'r  as  an  unconditional  surrender,  and  told  then: 
that  he  Avould  visit  their  cifv  and  vW'cr  sacrifices  to  Melcart,  a 


B.C.  332.  SIEGE  OF  TYRE.  191 

Tyrian  dci'iV,  Avho  was  considered  as  identical  with  the  Grcf ian 
Hercules.  This  bronglit  the  matter  to  an  issue.  The  Tyrians 
now  intbrmcd  hira  tliat  they  could  not  admit  any  foreigners  within 
their  walls,  and  that,  if  he  wished  to  sacrifice  to  Melcart,  he 
would  find  another  and  more  ancient  shrine  in  Old  Tyre,  on  the 
main  land.  Alexander  indignantly  dismissed  the  Tyrian  ambas- 
sadors, and  announced  his  intention  of  laying  siege  to  theit 
city.  The  Tyrians  probably  deemed  it  impregnable.  It  was  hf 
nature  a  place  of  great  strength,  and  had  been  rendered  still 
stronger  by  art.  The  island  on  which  it  stood  was  b.alf  a  mile 
distant  from  the  main  land  ;  and  though  the  cliannel  was  shallow 
near  the  coast,  it  dcei)cned  to  three  fathoms  near  the  island.  The 
shores  of  the  island  were  rocky  and  precipitous,  and  the  walls  rose 
from  the  cliffs  to  the  height  of  150  feet  in  solid  masonry.  As 
Alexander  possessed  no  ships,  the  only  method  by  which  he  could 
i^pproach  the  town  was  by  constructing  a  causeway,  the  materials 
for  which  were  collected  from  the  forests  of  Libanus  and  the  ruins 
of  Old  Tyre.  After  overcoming  many  difficulties,  the  mole  was  at 
length  pushed  to  the  foot  of  the  v/alls ;  and  as  soon  as  Alexander 
had  effected  a  practicable  breach,  he  ordered  a  general  assault 
both  bv  land  and  sea.  The  breacli  was  stormed  under  the  imme- 
diate  inspection  of  Alexander  himself;  and  though  the  Tyrians 
made  a  desperate  resistance,  they  were  at  length  overpowered, 
when  the  city  became  one  wide  scene  of  indiscriminate  carnage 
and  plunder.  The  siege  had  lasted  seven  months,  and  the  Mace- 
donians were  so  exasperated  by  the  difficulties  and  dangers  they 
had  undergone  that  they  granted  no  quarter.  Eight  thousand  of 
the  citizens  arc  said  to  have  been  massacred ;  and  the  remainder, 
with  the  exception  of  the  king  and  some  cf  the  principal  men, 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  tlic  temple  of  Melcart,  were  sold  into 
slavery  to  the  number  of  30,000.  Tyre  was  taken  in  the  month 
of  July  in  332. 

Whilst  Alexander  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Tyre,  Darius 
made  him  further  and  more  advantageous  proposals.  He  now  of- 
fered 10,000  talents  as  the  ransom  of  his  family,  together  Avith  all 
the  provinces  west  of  the  Euphrates,  and  his  daughter  Barsine  in 
marriage,  as  the  conditions  of  a  peace.  When  these  offers  were 
submitted  to  the  council,  Parmenio  was  not  unnaturally  stiuck 
with  their  magnificence,  and  observed  that,  were  he  Alexander,  he 
would  accept  them.  "  And  so  would  I,"  replied  the  king,  "  were 
I  Parmenio."  Darius  therefore  prepared  himself  for  a  desperate 
resistance. 

After  the  fall  of  Tvrc,  Alexander  marched  with  his  army  towards 
Egypt,  whilst  his  fleet  proceeded  along  the  coast,      Gaza,  a  strong 


192  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XX 

fortress  on  the  sca-shorc,  obstinately  held  out,  antl  delayed  his  prog, 
ress  three  or  four  months.  After  tlic  cajiture  of  this  city  Alex- 
ander met  his  fleet  at  Pelusium,  and  ordered  it  to  sail  up  the  Nil» 
as  far  as  Memphis,  whither  he  himself  marehed  with  liis  army 
across  the  desert.  lie  conciliated  the  affection  of  the  E<iy])tinng 
by  the  respect  with  which  he  treated  tlieir  national  superstitions, 
whilst  the  Persians,  by  an  opi)osite  line  of  conduct,  had  incurred 
their  deadliest  hatred.  He  then  sailed  down  the  western  branch 
of  the  Nile,  and  at  its  mouth  traced  the  ])lan  of  the  new  city  cf 
Alexandria,  which  for  many  centuries  continued  to  be  not  only  the 
grand  emporium  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  India,  but  also  tlie  i)rin- 
cipal  centre  of  intellectual  life.  Being  now  on  the  confines  of 
Libya,  Alexander  resolved  to  visit  the  celebrated  oracle  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  Amnion,  which  lay  in  the  bosom  of  the  Libyan  wilder- 
ness. The  conqueror  was  received  by  the  priests  with  all  the  hon- 
ours of  sacred  pomp.  He  consulted  the  oracle  in  secret,  and  is 
said  never  to  have  disclosed  the  answer  which  he  received  ;  though 
that  it  was  an  answer  that  contented  him  ai)i)eared  from  the  mag- 
nificence of  the  offerings  which  he  made  to  the  god.  Some  say 
that  Amnion  saluted  him  as  the  son  of  Zeus. 

Alexander  returned  to  Phcenicia  in  the  spring  of  331 .  He  then 
directed  his  march  throu;^!!  Samaria,  and  arrived  at  Tha])sacus  on 
the  Euphrates  about  the  end  of  August.  After  crossing  the  river 
he  struck  to  the  northeast  through  a  fertile  and  well-supplied 
country.  On  his  march  he  was  told  that  Darius  was  jjosted  Avitli 
an  immense  force  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris,  but  on  arriving 
at  that  river  he  found  nobody  to  dispute  his  })assage.  He  then 
proceeded  southwards  along  its  banks,  and  after  four  days'  march 
fell  in  with  a  few  squadrons  of  the  enemy's  cavalry.  From  some 
of  these  who  were  made  prisoners  Alexander  learned  that  Darius 
was  encamped  with  his  host  on  one  of  the  extensive  ])lains  between 
th>3  Tigris  and  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  near  a  village  calletl 
Gaugamrda  (the  Camel's  IIous',;),  'J'he  town  of  ArbGla,  after  which 
the  battle  that  ensued  is  commonly  named,  lay  at  about  twenty 
miles  distance,  and  there  Darius  had  deposited  his  baggage  and 
treasure.  That  monarch  had  been  easily  persuaded  that  his  for- 
mer defeat  was  owing  solely  to  the  nature  of  the  ground;  and, 
therefore,  he  now  selected  a  wide  plain  for  an  engagement,  where 
there  was  abundant  room  for  his  multitudinous  infantry,  and  for 
the  evolutions  of  his  horsemen  and  charioteers.  Alexander,  after 
giving  his  army  a  few  days'  rest,  sot  out  to  meet  the  enemy  soon 
after  midnight,  in  ordin-  that  he  might  come  up  with  them  about 
daybreak.  On  ascending  some  sand-hills,  the  whole  array  of  the 
Persians  suddenly  burst  upon  the  view  of  the  Macedonians,  at  the 


B.C.  331,  BATTLE  OF  ARBELA,  193 

distance  of  three  or  four  miles.  Durins,  as  usual,  occupied  the 
centre,  surrounded  by  his  body-guard  and  chosen  troops.  In  front 
of  the  royal  position  ■were  ranged  the  war-chariots  and  elephants, 
And  on  either  side  the  Greek  mercenaries,  to  the  number,  it  is  said, 
of  50,000.  Alexander  spent  the  first  day  in  surveying  the  ground 
and  preparing  for  the  attack ;  he  also  addressed  his  troops,  point- 
ing out  to  them  that  the  prize  of  victory  would  not  be  a  mere  prov- 
ince, but  the  dominion  of  all  Asia.  Yet  so  great  was  the  tranquil- 
lity with  which  he  contemplated  the  result,  that  at  daybreak  on  the 
following  morning,  when  the  ofRccrs  came  to  receive  his  final  in- 
structions, they  found  him  in  a  deep  slumber.  His  army,  which 
consisted  only  of  -1:0,000  foot  and  7000  horse,  was  draAvn  up  in  the 
order  which  he  usually  observed,  namel}',  with  the  phalanx  in  the 
centre  in  six  divisions,  and  the  Macedonian  cavalry  on  the  right, 
Avhcre  Alexander  himself  took  his  station.  The  Persians,  fearful 
of  being  sui'prised,  had  stood  under  arms  the  whole  night,  so  that 
the  morning  found  them  exhausted  and  dispirited.  Some  of  them, 
however,  fought  with  considerable  bravery ;  but  when  Alexander 
had  succeeded  in  breaking  their  line  by  an  impetuous  charge,  Da- 
rius mounted  a  fleet  horse  and  took  to  flight,  as  at  Issus,  though 
the  fortune  of  the  day  was  yet  far  from  having  been  decided.  At 
length,  however,  the  rout  became  general.  Whilst  daylight  lasted 
Alexander  pursued  the  flying  enemy  as  far  as  the'  banks  of  the 
Lycus,  or  Greater  Zab,  were  thousands  of  the  Persians  perished 
in  the  attempt  to  pass  the  river.  After  resting  his  men  a  few 
hours,  Alexander  continued  the  pursuit  at  midnight  in  the  hope 
of  overtaking  DariuB  at  Arbela.  The  Persian  monarch,  however, 
had  continued  his  flight  without  stopping;  but  the  whole  of  the 
royal  baggage  and  treasure  was  captured. 

Finding  any  further  pusuit  of  Darius  hopeless,  Alexander  now 
directed  his  march  towards  Babylon.  At  a  little  distance  from 
the  city  the  greater  part  of  t'.ie  population  came  out  to  meet  him, 
headed  by  their  priests  and  magistrates,  tendering  their  submis- 
sion, and  bearing  with  them  magnificent  presents.  Alexander 
then  made  his  triumphant  entry  into  Babylon,  riding  in  a  chariot 
at  the  head  of  his  army.  The  streets  Avere  strewed  with  flowers, 
incense  smoked  on  either  hand  on  silver  altars,  and  the  priests 
celebrated  his  entry  with  hymns.  Nor  was  this  the  mere  display 
of  a  compulsory  obedience.  Under  the  Persian  sway  the  Chaldaan 
religion  had  been  oppressed  and  persecuted;  the  temple  of  Beliis 
had  been  destroyed  and  still  lay  in  ruins ;  and  both  priests  and 
people  consequently  rejoiced  at  the  downfall  of  a  dynasty  from 
which  they  had  suffered  so  much  wrong.  Alexander  observed 
'■'ere  the  same  poli*^"  conduct  AvhicK  he  had  adopted  in  Eg)7)t. 

N 


191  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  X:S 

He  caused  tlio  ruined  temples  to  be  restored,  and  proposed  to  offev 
personally,  but  under  the  direction  of  the  priests,  a  sacrifice  to 
Belus.  Alexander  contemjjlated  making  Babylon  the  capital  of 
his  future  empire,  llis  army  was  rewarded  Avi»,h  a  large  donativo 
from  the  Persian  treasury ;  and  after  being  allowed  to  indulge  for 
some  time  in  the  luxury  of  Babylon,  was  again  put  in  motion, 
towards  the  middle  of  November,  for  Susa.  It  was  there  that  tlio 
Persian  treasures  were  chiefly  accumulated,  and  Alexander  had 
despatched  one  of  his  generals  to  take  possession  of  the  city  im- 
mediately after  the  battle  of  Arbela.  It  was  surrendered  without 
a  blow  by  the  satrap  Abulites.  The  treasure  found  there  amount- 
ed to  40,000  talents  in  gold  and  silver  bullion,  and  9000  in  gold 
Darics.  But  among  all  tliese  riches  the  interest  of  the  Greeks 
must  have  been  excited  in  a  lively  manner  by  the  discovery  of  tho 
spoils  carried  off  from  Greece  by  Xerxes.  Among  them  were  the 
bronze  statues  of  Ilarmodius  and  Aristogiton,  which  Alexander 
now  sent  back  to  Athens,  and  which  were  long  afterwards  pre- 
served in  the  Ceramlcus. 

At  Susa  Alexander  received  re-enforcements  of  about  15,000 
men  from  Greece.  He  then  directed  his  march  soutlieastwards 
towards  Pcrscpolis.  His  road  lay  through  the  mountainous  ter- 
ritory of  tlie  Uxians,  who  refused  him  a  passage  unless  lie  ])aid 
the  usual  tribute  whicli  they  were  in  the  habit  of  extorting  even 
from  the  Persian  kings.  But  Alexander  routed  them  with  great 
slaughter.  He  then  advanced  rapidly  to  Pcrscpolis,  whose  mag- 
nificent ruins  still  attest  its  ancient  splendoin-.  It  Avas  the  real 
capital  of  the  Persian  kings,  though  they  generally  resided  at  Susa 
during  tlic  winter,  and  at  Ecbatuna  in  summer.  The  treasure 
found  tlicre  exceeded  that  both  of  Babylon  and  Susa,  and  is  said  to 
liave  amounted  to  120,000  talents,  or  nearly  £30,000,000  sterling. 
It  was  here  that  Alexander  is  related  to  have  committed  an  act  of 
senseless  folly,  by  firing  with  his  own  hantl  the  ancient  and  mag- 
nificent palace  of  tho  Persian  kings,  of  which  the  most  charitable 
version  is  that  he  committed  the  act  when  heated  with  wine  at  tho 
instigation  of  Thais,  an  Athenian  courtesan.  By  some  writers, 
howevc",  the  story  is  altogether  disbelieved,  and  tlie  real  destruc- 
tion of  Pcrscpolis  referred  to  the  INIohammedan  epoch.  AVhilst  at 
Pcrso]jolis,  Alexander  visited  the  tomb  of  Cyrus,  the  founder  of 
the  Persian  monarchy,  which  was  situated  at  a  little  distance,  at  a 
city  callc  1  Pasargada;. 

Thus,  in  between  tlirce  and  four  years  after  crossing  the  Helles- 
pont, Alexander  had  cstalilishcil  himself  on  the  J'ersian  throne'. 
But  Darius  was  not  yet  in  his  i)ower.  After  the  battle  of  Arbela 
tiuit  monarch  had  fled  to  Ecbatina.      It  was  not  till  about  foul 


B.C.  330.  DEATH  OF  DARIUS.  195 

months  after  the  battle  of  Arbela,  and  consequently  early  in  330, 
that  Alexander  quitted  Persepolis  to  resume  the  pursuit  of  Darius. 
On  approaching^  Ecbatana  he  learned  that  the  Persian  monarch 
had  already  fled  with  the  little  army  which  still  adhered  to  him. 
Alexander,  with  his  main  body,  then  pursued  Darius  through  Media 
by  forced  marches,  and  reached  Rhaga?,  a  distance  of  three  hundred 
miles  from  Ecbatana,  in  eleven  days.  Such  was  the  rapidity  of 
the  march  that  many  men  and  horses  died  of  fatigue.  At  Rhagse 
he'  heard  that  Darius  had  already  passed  the  defile  called  the 
"Caspian  Gates,"  leading  into  the  Bactrian  provinces;  and,  as 
that  pass  was  fifty  miles  distant,  urgent  pursuit  was  evidently  use- 
less. He  therefore  allowed  his  troops  five  days'  rest,  and  then  re- 
suuKid  his  march.  Soon  after  passing  the  Gates  he  learned  that 
Darius  had  been  seized  and  loaded  with  chains  by  his  own  satrap 
Bessus,  who  entertained  the  design  of  establishing  himself  in 
Bactria  as  an  independent  sovereign.  This  intelligence  stimulated 
Alexander  to  make  still  further  haste  with  part  of  his  cavalry  and 
a  chosen  body  of  foot.  On  the  fourth  day  he  succeeded  in  over- 
taking the  fugitives  with  his  cavalry,  having  been  obliged  to  leave 
the  infantry  behind,  with  directions  to  follow  more  at  leisure.  The 
enemy,  Avho  did  not  know  his  real  strength,  were  struck  with  con- 
sternation at  his  appearance,  and  fled  precipitately.  Bessus  and 
his  adherents  now  endeavoured  to  persuade  Darius  to  fly  Avith 
them,  and  provided  a  fleet  horse  for  that  purpose.  But  the  Per- 
sian monarch,  who  had  already  experienced  the  generosity  of 
Alexander  in  the  treatment  of  his  captive  family,  preferred  to  fall 
into  his  hands,  wliereupon  the  conspirators  mortally  wounded  him 
in  the  chariot  in  which  th.ey  kept  him  confined,  and  then  took  to 
flight.  Darius  expired  before  Alexander  could  come  up,  who 
threw  his  own  cloak  over  the  body.  He  then  ordered  him  to  bo 
magnificently  buried  in  the  tomb  of  his  ancestors,  and  provided 
for  the,  fitting  education  of  his  children. 

The  next  three  years  were  employed  by  Alexander  in  subduing 
Ilyrcania,  Drangiana,  Bactria,  and  Sogdiana,  and  the  other  north- 
ern provinces  of  the  Persian  empire.  In  these  distant  regions  ho 
founded  several  cities,  one  of  which  in  Aria,  called  after  him 
(Alexandria  Ariorum),  is  still,  under  the  name  of  Herat,  one  of 
the  chief  cities  in  central  Asia.  Alexander's  stay  in  Prophthasia. 
the  capital  of  Drangiana,  was  signalized  by  a  supposed  conspiracy 
against  his  life,  formed  by  Philotas,  the  son  of  Parmenio.  Alex- 
ander had  long  entertained  suspicions  of  Philutas.  But  the  im 
eiediate  subject  of  accusation  against  him  was  that  he  had  not  re- 
vealed a  conspiracy  which  was  reported  to  be  forming  against  Al- 
sxander's  life,  and  which  he  had  deemed  too  contemiDtiblc  to  notice. 


196  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  CiiAr.  XX. 

lie  was  consequently  suspected  of  beinpf  implicated  in  it ;  and  on 
beins  put  to  the  torture,  he  not  only  confessed  his  own  guilt  in  his 
agonies,  but  also  implicated  his  father.  PhilGtas  was  executed, 
and  an  order  was  sent  to  Ecbatana,  where  Parmenio  then  was, 
directing  that  veteran  general  to  be  i)ut  to  death.  A  letter,  pur- 
porting to  be  from  his  son,  was  handed  to  him  ;  and  whilst  the  old 
man  was  engaged  in  reading  it,  Polydamus,  his  intimate  friend, 
together  with  some  others  of  Alexander's  ])rincipal  officers,  fell 
upon  and  slew  him.      His  head  was  carried  to  Alexander. 

Meantime  Bessus  had  assumed  tlic  royal  dignity  in  Bactria, 
but  upon  Alexander's  approach  he  fled  across  the  Oxus  into  Sog- 
diana.  Early  in  the  summer  of  329  Alexander  followed  him 
across  the  Oxus,  and  shortly  afterwards  Bessus  was  betrayed  by 
two  of  his  own  officers  into  the  Iiands  of  Alexander.  Bessus  was 
carried  to  Zariaspa,  the  capital  of  Bactria,  where  he  was  brought 
before  a  Persian  court,  and  put  to  death  in  a  cruel  and  barbarous 
manner. 

Alexander  even  crossed  the  River  Jaxartes  (Sir),  and  defeated 
the  Scythians.  Sogdiana  alone  of  the  northern  provinces  oifered 
any  serious  resistance  to  his  arms.  Accordingly,  in  328,  he  again 
crossed  the  Oxus.  He  divided  his  army  into  five  bodies,  ordering 
them  to  scour  the  country  in  ditforent  directions.  With  the  troops 
under  his  own  command  he  marched  against  the  fortress  called  the 
Sogdian  Rock,  seated  on  an  isolated  hill,  so  precijntous  as  to  be 
deemed  inaccessible,  and  so  well  supplied  with  pi'ovisions  as  to 
defy  a  blockade.  The  summons  to  surrender  was  treated  with 
derision  hy  the  commander,  who  inquired  whether  the  ^Maccdo- 
nians  had  wings.  But  a  small  body  of  JNlacedonians  having  suc- 
ceeded in  scaling  some  heights  which  overhung  ihc  fortress,  the 
garrison  became  so  alarmed  that  they  immediately  surrendered. 
To  this  jdace  a  Bactrian  named  Oxyartes,  an  adherent  of  Bessus, 
had  sent  his  daugliters  for  safety.  One  of  them,  named  Roxfina, 
was  of  surpassing  beauty,  and  Alexander  made  her  the  partner  of 
his  throne  (n.c.  328). 

At  Maracanda  (now  Sama7'cand)  he  appointed  his  friend  Clitus 
Batrap  of  Bactria.  On  the  eve  of  the  parting  of  the  two  friends 
A-lexander  celebrated  a  festival  in  honour  of  the  Dioscuri  (Castor 
ftud  Pollux),  though  the  day  was  sacred  to  Dionysus  (Bacchus). 
The  ban(iuct  was  attended  by  several  jiarasites  and  literary  flat- 
terers, who  magniiit'd  the  ])raiscs  of  Alexander  with  extravagant 
and  nauseous  flattery.  Clitus,  Avliom  wine  had  released  from  all 
n-udent  reserve,  sternly  rebuked  their  fulsome  adulation ;  and,  as 
the  conversation  turned  on  the  c()nq)arative  merits  of  the  cxjjloits 
of  Alexander  and  his  father  Philip,  he  did  ^ot  hesitate  to  prefer 


B.C.  327.  INVASION  OV  IXDIA.  19? 

the  exploits  of  the  latter.     Ho  reminded  Alexander  of  his  former 
services,  and,  stretchin;^  fortii  his  hand,  exclaimed,  "  It  Avas  this 
hand,  Alexander,  vvliicli  saved  your  life  at  the  battle  of  the  Granl- 
cus !"     The  king,  who  was  also  flushed  with  wine,  was  so  enraged 
by  these  remarks  that  lie  rushed  at  Clitus  with  the  intention  of 
killing  him  on  the  spot,  but  he  was  held  back  by  his  friends,  whilst 
Clitus  was  at  the  same  time  hurried  out  of  the  room.    Alexander, 
however,  was  no  sooner  released  than,  snatching  a  spear,  he  sprang 
to  the  door,  and  meeting  Clitus,  who  was  returning  in  equal  fury 
to  brave  his  anger,  ran  him  through  the  body.    But  when  the  deed 
was  done  he  M-as  seized  with  repentance  and  remorse.     He  flung 
himself  on  his  couch,  and  remained  for  three  whole  days  in  an 
agony  of  grief,  refusing  all  sustenance,  and  calling  on  the  names 
of  Clitus  and  of  his  sister  Lanicc',  who  had  been  his  nurse.    It  was 
not  till  his  bodily  strength  began  to  fail  through  protracted  absti- 
nence that  he  at  last  became  more  composed,  and  consented  to 
listen  to  the  consolations  of  his  friends,  and  the  words  of  the  sooth- 
sayers, who  ascribed  the  murder  of  Clitus  to  a  temporary  frenzy 
Avith  which  Dionysus  had  visited  him  as  a  punishment  for  neglect- 
ing the  celebration  of  his  festival. 

After  reducing  Sogdiana,  Alexander  returned  into  Bactria  in 
327,  and  began  to  prepare  for  his  projected  expedition  into  India. 
Whilst  he  was  thus  employed,  a  plot  was  formed  against  his  life 
by  the  royal  pages,  incited  by  Hermolaus,  one  of  their  number, 
who  had  been  punished  with  stripes  for  anticipating  the  king 
during  a  hunting  party  in  slaying  a  wild  boar.  Hermolaus  and 
his  associates,  among  whom  was  Callisthenes,  a  pupil  of  Aristotle, 
were  first  tortured,  and  then  put  to  death.  It  seems  certain  that 
a  conspiracy  existed,  but  no  less  certain  that  the  growing  pride 
and  haughtiness  of  Alexander  Avere  gradually  alienating  from  him 
the  hearts  of  his  followers. 

Alexander  did  not  leave  Bactria  till  late  in  the  spring.  He 
crossed  the  Indus  by  a  bridge  of  beats  near  Taxila,  the  present 
Attock,  Avhere  the  river  is  about  1000  feet  broad,  and  very  deep. 
He  now  found  himself  in  the  district  at  present  called  the  Penj~<ib 
(or  the  Five  Pavers).  Taxiles,  the  sovereign  of  the  district,  at  once 
surrendered  Taxila,  his  capital,  and  joined  the  Macedonian  force 
with  5000  men.  Hence  Alexander  proceeded  Avith  little  resistance 
to  the  Eiver  Hydaspes  {Behut  or  Jebim).  On  the  opposite  bank, 
Torus,  a  pov:erful  Indian  king,  prepared  to  dispute  his  progress 
Avith  a  numerous  and  Avell-appointed  force.  Alexander,  however, 
by  a  skilful  stratagem,  conveyed  his  army  safely  across  the  river. 
An  obstinate  battle  then  ensued.  In  the  army  of  Porus  Avere  many 
elephants,  the  sight  and  smell  of  Avhich  frightened  the  horses  of 


198  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XX. 

Alexander's  cavalrv.  But  these  iinwieldv  animals  ultimately 
proved  as  dangerous  to  the  Indians  as  to  the  Greeks ;  for  wlieu 
driven  into  a  narrow  space  they  became  unmanageable,  and  cre- 
ated great  confusion  in  the  ranks  of  Porus.  By  a  few  vigorous 
charges  the  Indians  were  completely  routed,  with  the  loss  of 
12,000  slain  and  9000  prisoners.  Among  the  latter  Avas  Torus 
himself,  who  was  conducted  into  the  jiresence  of  Alexander.  The 
courage  whicli  he  liad  disj)laycd  in  the  battle  had  excited  the  ad- 
miration of  the  JNlacedonian  king.  Mounted  on  an  enormous 
elephant,  he  retreated  leisurely  when  the  day  was  lost,  and  long 
rejected  every  summons  to  surrender,  till  at  length,  overcome  by 
tliirst  and  fatigue,  he  permitted  liimself  to  be  taken.  Even  in  this 
situation  Porus  still  retained  his  majestic  bearing,  the  effect  of 
wliich  was  increased  by  the  extraordinary  lieight  of  his  stature. 
On  Alexander  s  inquiring  how  he  wished  to  be  treated,  he  replied, 
"Like  a  king."  "  And  have  you  no  other  request ?"  asked  Alex- 
ander. "No,"  answered  Porus;  "everything  is  comprehended 
in  the  word  king."  Struck  by  his  magnanimity,  Alexander  not 
only  restored  him  to  his  dominions,  but  also  considerably  enlarged 
them ;  seeking  by  these  means  to  retain  him  as  an  obedient  and 
faitlifal  vassal. 

Alexander  rested  a  month  on  the  banks  of  the  Ilydaspcs,  where 
he  celebrated  his  victory  by  games  and  sacriliccs,  and  founded  two 
towns,  one  of  whicli  he  named  Nicaja,  and  tiie  other  Buccplulla,  in 
honour  of  his  gallant  charger  Bucephalus,  which  is  said  to  have 
died  there.  He  then  overran  the  whole  of  the  Penj-ab  as  far  as 
the  Hypliusis  (Gharnt),  its  soutliern  boundary.  Upon  reaching 
this  river,  the  army,  worn  out  by  fatigues  and  dangers,  positively 
refused  to  proceed  any  fjirther,  although  Alexander  passionately 
desired  to  attack  a  monarcli  still  more  powerful  than  Porus,  whose 
dominions  lay  beyond  the  Ilyphasis.  All  his  attempts  to  induce 
his  soldiers  to  proceed  proving  ineffectual,  he  returned  to  the  Hy- 
daspes,  where  he  ordered  ])art  of  his  army  to  descend  the  river  on 
the  opposite  banks,  whilst  he  himself,  at  the  head  of  8000  men, 
embarked  on  board  a  fleet  of  about  2000  vessels,  which  he  Imd 
ordered  to  be  pre])ared  with  the  view  of  sailing  down  the  Indus  to 
hi  mouth. 

The  army  bcgaii  to  move  in  November,  827.  The  navigation 
lasted  several  months,  but  was  accomplished  Avithout  any  serious 
opposition,  excei)t  from  the  tribe  of  tlie  Malli,  avIio  arc  conjectured 
to  have  occuj)ied  the  site  of  the  present  Moollan.  At  the  .storming 
of  their  town  the  life  of  Alexander  was  exposed  to  imminent  dan- 
ger. He  was  the  first  to  scale  the  walls  of  the  citadel,  and  was 
followed  by  four  ollicers;  but  before  a  lifth  man  could  mount,  tlio 


B.C.  325.     MUTINY  OF  ALEXANDER'S  AKMY.  199 

ladder  broke,  and  Alexander  was  left  exposed  on  the  wall  to  the 
missiles  of  the  enemy.  Leaping  down  into  the  citadel  among  tne 
enemy,  he  placed  his  back  to  tlie  wall,  where  he  succeeded  in  keep- 
ing the  enemy  at  bay,  and  slew  two  of.their  chiefs  who  had  ventured 
within  reach  of  his  sword ;  but  an  arrow  which  pierced  his  corslet 
brought  him  to  the  ground,  fainting  Vv'ith  loss  of  blood.  Two  of 
his  followers,  who  had  jumped  down  after  him,  now  stood  over  and 
defended  him  ;  till  at  length,  more  soldiers  having  scaled  the  walls 
and  opened  one  of  the  gates,  sufficient  numbers  poured  in  not  only 
to  rescue  their  monarch,  but  to  capture  the  citadel,  when  every 
living  being  within  the  place  was  put  to  the  sword.  Upon  arriv- 
ing at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  Nearchus,  with  the  fleet,  -was  direct- 
ed to  explore  tlie  Indian  Ocean,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  mouths 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrateg,  with  the  view  of  establishing  a  mari- 
fime  communication  between  India  and  Persia.  Alexander  him- 
self proceeded  with  his  army,  in  the  autumn  of  32G,  through  the 
burning  deserts  of  Gedrosia  towards  Persepolis,  marching  himself 
on  foot,  and  sharing  the  privations  and  fatigues  of  the  meanest 
soldier.  In  these  regions  the  A'cry  atmosphere  seems  to  be  com- 
posed of  a  line  dust,  Avhicli,  on  the  slightest  Avind,  penetrates  into 
the  mouth  and  nose,  whiLt  the  soil  affords  r.o  firm  footing  to 
the  traveller.  The  march  through  this  inhospitable  region  lasted 
CO  days,  during  which  numbers  of  the  soldiers  perished  from  fa- 
tigue or  disease.  At  length  they  emerged  into  the  fertile  province 
of  Carmania.  Whilst  in  this  country  Alexander  Avas  rejoined  by 
Nearchus,  who  had  aiTived  with  his  fleet  at  Ilarmozia  (Onimz), 
but  who  subsequently  prosecuted  his  voyage  to  the  head  of  the 
Persian  Gulf. 

Upon  reaching  Susa  (n.c.  325)  Alexander  allowed  his  soldiers 
to  repose  from  their  fatigues,  and  amused  them  with  a  series  of 
brilliant  festivities.  It  was  here  tiiat  he  adopted  various  measures 
with  the  view  of  consolidating  his  empire.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant Avas  to  form  the  Greeks  and  Persians  into  one  people  by 
means  of  intermarriages.  He  himself  celebrated  his  nuptials  AA'ith 
Statira,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Darius,  and  bestOAved  the  hand  of 
her  sister,  Drypetis,  on  Hephastion.  Other  marriages  Avere  made 
between  Alexander's  officers  and  Asiatic  AA-omen,  to  the  number,  it 
is  said,  of  about  a  hundred,  Avhilst  no  fcAA-er  than  10,000  of  the 
common  soldiers  followed  their  example  and  took  natiA-e  AviA-es. 
As  another  means  of  amalgamating  the  Europeans  and  Asiatics, 
he  caused  numbers  of  the  latter  to  be  admitted  into  the  army,  and 
to  be  armed  and  trained  in  the  Macedonian  fashion.  But  these 
innoA'ations  Avero  regarded  Avith  a  jealous  eye  by  most  of  the  Mac- 
edonian A'cterans ;  and  this  feeling  AA'as  increased  by  the  conduct 


200  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XX, 

of  Alexander  himself,  who  assumed  every  day  more  and  more  of 
the  state  and  manners  of  an  Eastern  despot.  Their  long-stifle  J 
dissatisfaction  broke  out  into  open  mutiny  and  rebellion  at  a  re- 
view which  took  place  at  Opis  on  the  Tigris.  But  the  mutiny 
was  quelled  by  the  decisive  conduct  of  Alexander.  lie  immedi- 
ately ordered  thirteen  of  the  ringleaders  to  be  seized  and  executed, 
and  then,  addressing  the  remainder,  pointed  out  to  them  how,  by 
his  own  and  his  father's  exertions,  they  had  been  raised  from  tho 
condition  of  scattered  herdsmen  to  be  the  masters  of  Greece  and 
the  lords  of  Asia;  and  that,  whilst  he  had  abandoned  to  them  the 
richest  and  most  valuable  fruits  of  his  conquest,  he  had  reserved 
nothing  but  the  diadem  for  himself,  as  the  mark  of  his  superior 
labours  and  more  imminent  perils.  lie  then  secluded  liimsolf 
for  two  whole  days,  during  which  his  INIaccdonian  guard  was  ex- 
changed for  a  Persian  one,  whilst  nobles  of  the  same  nation  wero 
appointed  to  the  most  confidential  ])osts  about  his  jjerson.  Over- 
come by  these  marks  of  alienation  ou  tlic  part  of  their  sovereign, 
the  Macedonians  now  supplicated  with  tears  to  be  restored  to 
favour.  A  solemn  reconciliation  was  etfectcd,  and  10,000  veterans 
were  dismissed  to  their  homes  under  the  conduct  of  Craterus. 
That  general  was  also  appointed  to  the  government  of  ^laccdonia 
in  place  of  Antipatcr,  who  was  ordered  to  repair  to  Asia  with  fresh 
re-enforcements. 

Soon  after  these  occurrences  Alexander  proceeded  to  Ecbatana, 
where  during  the  autumn  he  solemnized  the  festival  of  Dionysus 
with  extraordinary  splendour.  But  his  enjoyment  was  suddenly 
converted  into  bitterness  by  the  death  of  his  friend  Ilephrcstion, 
who  was  curried  off  l)y  a  fever.  Tliis  event  threw  Alexander  into 
a  deep  melancholy,  from  which  he  never  entirely  recovered.  Tho 
memory  of  Hephajstion  was  honoured  by  extravagant  marks  of 
public  mourning,  and  his  body  was  conveyed  to  Babylon,  to  bs 
there  interred  with  the  utmost  magnificence. 

Alexander  entered  Babylon  in  the  spring  of  324,  notwithstand- 
ing the  warnings  of  the  priests  of  Belus,  who  predicted  some  serious 
evil  to  him  if  he  entered  the  city  at  that  time.  Babvlon  was  now 
to  witness  the  consummation  of  his  triumphs  and  of  his  life.  Am- 
bassadors from  all  ])arts  of  Greece,  from  Libya,  Italy,  and  ])r()bably 
from  still  more  distant  regions,  were  waiting  to  salute  him,  and 
to  do  homage  to  him  as  the  con(]ueror  of  Asia;  the  fleet  under 
Nearchus  had  arrived  after  its  long  and  enterprising  voyage ; 
whilst  for  the  reception  of  this  navy,  which  seemed  to  turn  the  in- 
land capital  of  liis  cni])irc  into  a  port,  a  magnificent  harbour  wa» 
in  jiroccss  of  construction.  The  mind  of  Alexander  was  still  oc- 
cupied with  plans  of  comiucct  and  ambition;  his  next  design  waa 


B.C.  323.  DEATH  OF  ALEXANDER.  201 

the  subjugation  of  Arabia,  uliich,  however,  was  to  be  only  tho 
stepping-stone  to  the  conquest  of  the  whole  known  world.  lie 
despatched  three  expeditions  to  survey  the  coast  of  Arabia ;  or- 
dered a  fleet  to  Le  built  to  explore  the  Caspian  Sea ;  and  en- 
gaged himself  in  surveying  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  and  in 
devising  improvements  of  its  navigation.  The  period  for  com- 
mencing tlic  Arabian  campaign  had  already  arrived  ;  solemn  sac- 
rifices were  otlered  up  for  its  success,  and  grand  banquets  Avero 
given  previous  to  departui'C.  At  these  carousals  Alexander  dranh 
deep;  and  at  the  termination  of  the  one  given  by  his  favourite, 
Medius,  he  was  seized  with  imequivocal  symptoms  of  fever.  For 
some  days,  however,  he  neglected  the  disorder,  and  continued  to 
occupy  himself  Avith  the  necessary  preparations  for  the  march. 
But  in  eleven  days  the  malady  had  gained  a  fatal  strength,  and 
terminated  his  life  on  the  28th  of  June,  b.c.  323,  at  the  early  age 
(f  32.  "Whilst  he  lay  speechless  on  his  deatli-bed  his  favourite 
tvi;.!p3  were  admitted  to  sec  him,  but  he  could  offer  them  r.o  other 
token  of  recognition  tlian  by  stretching  out  his  hand. 

Few  of  the  great  characters  of  history  have  been  so  differently 
judged  as  Alexander.  Of  the  magnitude  of  his  exploits,  indeed, 
and  of  the  justice  with  which,  according  to  the  iisual  sentiments 
of  mankind,  they  confer  upon  him  the  title  of  "Great,"  there  can 
be  but  one  opinion.  His  military  renown,  however,  consists  more 
in  the  seemingly  extravagant  boldness  of  his  enterprises  than  in 
the  real  power  of  the  foes  whom  he  overcame.  The  resistance  he 
met  with  was  not  greater  than  that  which  a  European  army  ex- 
periences in  the  present  day  from  one  composed  of  Asiatics ;  and 
the  empire  of  the  East  was  decided  by  the  two  battles  of  Issus  and 
Arbela.  His  chief  difficulties  were  the  geographical  difficulties 
of  distance,  climate,  and  tlie  nature  of  the  ground  traversed.  But 
this  is  no  proof  that  he  was  incompetent  to  meet  a  foe  more 
worthy  of  his  military  skill ;  and  his  proceedings  in  Greece  before 
liis  departure  show  the  reverse.  His  motives,  it  must  be  allowed, 
seem  rather  to  have  sj)rung  from  the  love  of  personal  glory  and 
the  excitement  of  conquest  than  from  any  wish  to  benefit  his  sub- 
jects. Yet,  on  the  whole,  his  achievements,  though  they  imdoubt- 
edly  occasioned  great  partial  misery,  must  be  regarded  as  beneficial 
to  the  liuman  race.  By  his  conquests  the  two  continents  were  put 
into  closer  communication  with  one  another;  and  both,  but  par- 
ticularly Asia,  Avere  the  gainers.  The  language,  the  arts,  and  the 
literature  of  Greece  Avere  introduced  into  the  East ;  and,  after  the 
death  of  Alexander,  Greek  kingdoms  Avere  formed  in  the  Avestera 
parts  of  Asia,  Avhich  continued  to  exist  for  many  generations. 


> 


Coin  of  M;ice  !o!ii;i. 


CIIArTER  XXI, 

PROM    -mb    OKATTI    OF    ALKXANDEJl   TIII5    GREAT   TO    TIIK  COXQUESt 
OF    GREECE    V.Y   THE    ROMANS,  K.C.  320-1 2G. 

The  vast  empire  of  Alcxaiulcr  tiic  Great  was  divided,  at  his 
deatli,  amon^jj  his  ucnerals  ;  but,  before  relatiiij^j  tlicir  history,  it  is 
necessary  to  take  a  brief  retrospective  Rbince  at  tlie  atiiiirs  of  Greece. 
Tlirce  years  after  Alexander  liad  quitted  Europe  the  Spartans 
made  a  vij:;orous  effort  to  throw  off  the  Macedonian  yoke.  They 
were  joined  by  most  of  the  Feloponnesian  states  ;  but,  though  they 
met  with  some  success  at  first,  they  were  finally  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  by  Antipater  near  Megalopolis.  Agis  fell  in  this  battle, 
and  the  chains  of  Greece  were  riveted  more  firmly  than  ever.  Tliis 
victory,  and  the  successes  of  Alexander  in  the  East,  encouraged 
the  Macedonian  party  in  Athens  to  take  active  measures  against 
Demosthenes ;  nnd  iEschincs  revived  an  old  charge  against  him 
which  had  lain  dormant  for  several  years,  k^oon  after  the  battle 
of  Chajronea,  Ctesiphon  had  ]m)posed  that  Demosthenes  should  be 
presented  with  a  golden  crown  in  the  theatre  during  the  gi'catDi- 
onysiac  festival,  on  account  of  the  services  he  had  confeiTcd  npon 
his  country.  For  pro])Osing  this  decree  JEschincs  indicted  Ctesi- 
])hon;  but,  though  the  latter  was  the  nominal  defendant,  it  waa 
Demosthenes  who  was  really  put  npon  his  trial.  Tiic  case  was  de- 
cided in  330  iJ.c,  and  has  been  immortalized  by  the  memorable  and 
still  extant  speeches  of  iEschines  "Against  Ctesiphon,"  and  of  De- 
mosthenes "  On  the  Crown."  JEschines.  who  did  not  obtain  a  fifth 
]>art  of  the  votes,  and  consequently  became  hinifself  liable  to  a  pen- 
alty, was  so  chagrined  at  his  defeat  that  lie  retired  to  llJiodes. 
•^  In  15. c.  32.")  Ilarpillus  arrived  in  Athens.  He  had  been  left  by 
Alexander  at  Ecbatana  in  charge  of  the  royal  treasures,  and  aj^pears 
also  to  have  lield  the  important  satrajty  of  Babylon.  During  the 
absence  of  Alexander  in  India  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  most  cx« 


B.C.  325.  CONDEMNATION  OF  DEMOSTHENES.  203 

travagant  luxiiiy  and  profusion,  squandering  the  treasures  intrust- 
ed to  him,  at  the  same  time  that  lie  alienated  the  people  subject 
to  his  rule  by  his  lustful  excesses  and  extortions.     He  had  prob- 
ably thought  that  Alexander  would  never  return  from  the  remote 
regions  of  the  East  into  which  he  had  penetrated  ;  but  when  he  at 
length  learnt  that  the  king  was  on  his  march  back  to  Susa,  and  had 
visited  with  unsparing  rigour  those  of  his  officers  who  had  been 
guilty  of  any  excesses  during  his  absence,  he  at  once  saw  that  his 
only  resource  was  in  flight.     Collecting  together  all  the  treasures 
which  he  could,  and  assembling  a  body  of  GOOO  mercenaries,  he 
hastened  to  the  coast  of  Asia,  and  from  thence  crossed  over  to  At- 
tica.    At  first  the  Athenians  refused  to  receive  him  ;  but  bribes 
administered  to  some  of  the  principal  orators  induced  them  to  alter 
their  determination.     Such  a  step  Avas  tantamount  to  an  act  of  hos- 
tility against  iMacedonia  itself;  and  accordingly  Antipater  called 
upon  the  Athenians  to  deliver  up  llarpalus,  and  to  bring  to  trial 
those  who  had  accepted  his  bribes.     The  Athenians  did  not  ven- 
ture to  disobey  these  demands.     Harpalus  was  put  into  confine- 
ment, but  succeeded  in  making  his  escape  from  prison.     Demos- 
thenes was  among  the  orators  who  Avere  brought  to  trial  for  cor- 
ruption.    He  was  declared  to  be  guilty,  and  was  condemned  to  pay 
a  fine  of  uO  talents.    Not  being  able  to  raise  that  sum,  he  Avas  thrown 
into  prison;  but  he  contrived  to  make  his  escape,  and  went  into  exile. 
There  are,  however,  good  grounds  for  doubting  his  guilt ;  and  it  is 
more  probable  that  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  implacable  hatred  of  the 
Macedonian  party.     Upon  quitting  Athens,  Demosthenes  resided 
chiefly  at  JEgina  orTroezen,  in  sight  of  his  native  land,  and  when- 
ever he  looked  towards  her  shores  it  was  obsen^ed  that  he  shed 
tears. 

Wlien  the  news  of  Alexander's  death  reached  Athens,  the  anti- 
Macedonian  party,  which,  since  the  exile  of  Demosthenes,  was  led 
by  Hyperides,  carried  all  before  it.  The  people  in  a  decree  de- 
clared their  determination  to  support  the  liberty  of  Greece.  En- 
voys were  despatched  to  all  the  Grecian  states  to  announce  the  de~ 
tennination  of  Athens,  and  to  exhort  them  to  struggle  with  her  for 
their  independence.  This  call  was  responded  to  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus  only  by  the  smaller  states,  whilst  Sparta,  Arcadia,  and 
Achaia  kept  aloof.  In  northern  Greece  the  confederacy  was  join- 
ed  by  most  of  the  states  except  the  Boeotians ;  and  Leosthenes  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  allied  forces. 

The  allied  army  assembled  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Thermop- 
ylce.  Antipater  now  advanced  from  the  north,  and  offered  battle 
in  the  vale  of  the  Spercheus  ;  but,  being  deserted  by  his  Thessalian 
^^valry,  who  went  over  to  his  opponents  during  the  heat  of  the  er»- 


I 


204  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXI 

gagement,  he  was  obliged  to  retreat,  and  threw  liimself  into  Lamia, 
a  strong  fortress  on  the  Malian  Gulf.  Lcostliencs,  desirous  to  tin- 
ish  tlie  war  at  a  blow,  pressed  the  siege  Avith  the  utmost  vigour ; 
but  his  assaults  were  repulsed,  and  he  was  compelled  to  resort  to 
the  slower  method  of  a  blockade.  From  this  town  the  contest  be- 
tween Antipater  and  the  allied  Greeks  has  been  called  the  Lamiau 
i  War. 

The  novelty  of  a  victory  over  the  Macedonian  arms  was  received 
with  boundless  exultation  at  Athens,  and  this  feeling  was  raised  to 
a  still  higher  pitch  by  the  arrival  of  an  embassy  from  Antipater  td 
sue  for  peace.  But  the  Athenians  were  so  elated  with  their  good 
fortune,  tliat  tliey  would  listen  to  no  terms  but  the  nnconditional 
surrender  of  Antijjater.  Meantime  Demosthenes,  tliough  still  an 
exile,  exerted  liimself  in  various  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus  in 
counteracting  the  envoys  of  Antipater,  and  in  endeavouring  to 
gain  adherents  to  the  cause  of  Athens  and  the  allies.  The  Athe- 
nians, in  return,  invited  Demosthenes  back  to  his  native  country, 
and  a  shi;)  was  sent  to  convey  him  to  Pirajus,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  extraordinary  honours. 

Meanwhile  Leonnatus,  governor  of  the  Ilellespontine  Phrygia, 
had  appeared  on  the  theatre  of  war  with  an  army  of  20,000  foot 
and  2500  horse.  Leosthenes  had  been  slain  at  Lamia  by  a  sally 
of  the  besieged ;  and  Antiphilus,  on  whom  the  command  of  the 
allied  army  devolved,  hastened  to  offer  battle  to  Leonnatus  before 
he  could  arrive  at  Lamia.  The  hostile  armies  met  in  one  of  tho 
plains  of  Thessaly,  where  Leonnatus  was  killed  and  his  troops  de- 
feated. Anti]iater,  as  soon  as  the  blockade  of  Lamia  was  raised, 
had  i)ursued  Antiphilus,  and  on  the  day  afcer  the  battle  he  cllect- 
cd  a  junction  with  the  beaten  army  of  Leonnatus. 

Shortly  afterwards  Antipater  was  still  further  re-enforced  by 
the  arrival  of  Craterus  with  a  considerable  force  from  Asia ;  and 
boing  now  at  the  head  of  an  army  which  outnumbered  the  forces 
of  the  allies,  he  marched  against  them,  and  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  them  near  Crannon  in  Thessaly,  on  the  7th  of  August, 
B.C.  322.  The  allies  were  now  compelled  to  sue  for  peace ;  but 
Antipater  refused  to  treat  with  them  except  as  se})arate  states, 
forcseeiug  that  by  this  means  many  would  be  detached  from  the  con- 
fjderacv.  The  result  answered  his  expectations.  One  bv  one  the 
various  states  submitted,  till  at  length  all  had  laid  down  their 
arms.  Athens,  the  original  instigator  of  the  insurrection,  now  lay 
at  the  mercy  of  the  con([ueror.  As  Antipater  advanced,  Phocion 
used  all  the  influence  which  he  possessed  with  the  Macedonians 
in  favour  of  his  countrymen  ;  but  he  could  obtain  no  other  termii 
tlian  an  unconditional  surrender.      On  ,<  sccoml  luission  Phocioa 


B.C.  322.  THE  LAMIAN  WAR.  205 

received  the  final  demands  of  Antij)atcr,  which  were,  that  the 
Athenians  should  deliver  up  a  certain  number  of  their  orators, 
among  whom  were  Demosthenes  and  Ilyperidcs  ;  that  their  polit- 
ical franchise  should  be  limited  by  a  property  qualification ;  that 
they  should  receive  a  Macedonian  garrison  in  Munychia;  and  that 
they  should  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war.  Such  was  the  result 
of  the  Lamian  war,  which  riveted  the  Macedonian  fetters  more 
firmly  than  ever. 

After  the  return  of  the  envoys  bringing  the  ultimatum  of  An- 
tipater,  the  sycophant  Demades  procured  a  decree  for  the  death  of 
the  denounced  orators.  Demosthenes,  and  tlie  other  persons  com- 
promised, made  their  escape  from  Athens  before  the  Macedonian 
garrison  arrived,  ^gina  was  their  first  place  of  refuge,  but  they 
soon  parted  in  different  directions.  Hyperides  fled  to  the  temple 
of  Demeter  (Ceres)  at  Ilermione  in  Peloponnesus,  Avhilst  Demos- 
thenes took  refuge  in  that  of  Poseidon  (Nei)tune)  in  the  isle  of 
Calaurca,  near  Tra'zen.  But  the  satellites  of  Antipater,  under  the 
guidance  of  a  Thurian  named  Archias,  who  had  formerly  been  an 
actor,  tore  them  from  their  sanctuaries.  Hyperides  Avas  carried  to 
Athens,  and  it  is  said  that  Antijjater  took  the  brutal  and  cowardly 
revenge  of  ordering  his  tongue  to  be  cut  out,  and  his  remains  to  be 
thrown  to  the  dogs.  Demosthenes  contrived  at  last  to  escape  the 
insults  of  the  tyrannical  conqueror.  Archias  at  first  endeavoured 
to  entice  him  from  his  sanctuary  by  the  blandest  promises.  But 
Demosthenes,  forewarned,  it  is  said,  by  a  dream,  fixing  his  eyes 
intently  on  him,  exclaimed,  "Your  acting,  Archias,  never  touched 
me  formerly,  nor  do  your  promises  now."  And  when  Archias  be- 
gan to  employ  threats,  "Good,"  said  Demosthenes;  "now  you 
speak  as  from  the  IMacedonian  tripod  ;  before  you  were  only  play- 
ing a  part.  But  wait  awhile,  and  let  me  write  ray  last  directions 
to  my  fixmily."  So,  taking  his  writing  materials,  he  put  the  reed 
into  his  mouth,  and  bit  it  for  some  time,  as  was  his  custom  when 
composing;  after  which  he  covered  his  head  with  his  garment  and 
reclined  against  a  pillar.  The  guards  who  accompanied  Archias, 
imagining  this  to  be  a  mere  trick,  laughed  and  called  him  coward, 
whilst  Archias  began  to  renew  his  false  persuasions.  Demosthenes, 
feeling  the  poison  work — for  such  it  was  that  he  had  concealed  iu 
the  reed — now  bade  him  lead  on.  "You  may  now,"  said  he, 
"enact  the  part  of  Creon,  and  cast  me  out  nnburied  ;  but  at  least, 
O  gracious  Poseidon,  I  have  not  polluted  thy  temple  by  my  death, 
which  Antipater  and  his  Macedonians  would  not  have  scrupled 
at."  But  whilst  he  was  endeavouring  to  walk  out,  he  fell  down 
by  the  altar  and  expired. 

The  history  of  Alexander's  successors  is  mark'^d  from  first  to 


20G  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXL 

last  by  dissensions,  crimes,  and  unscrupulous  ambition.  It  is  only 
necessary  for  the  purpose  of  the  present  work  to  mention  very 
briefly  the  most  important  events. 

Alexander,  on  his  death-bed,  is  said  to  have  given  his  signet-ring 
to  Perdiccas,  but  he  had  left  no  k'gitimate  heir  to  his  throne, 
though  his  wife  R^xana  was  pregnant.  On  the  day  after  Alex- 
ander's death  a  military  council  was  assembled,  in  which  Perdiccas 
assumed  a  leading  part;  and  in  which,  after  much  debate,  an  ar- 
rangement was  at  length  cife'cted  on  the  following  basis:  That 
lihilip  Arrhidicus,  a  young  man  of  weak  intellect,  the  half-brother 
of  Alexander  (being  the  son  of  Philip  by  a  Thessaliau  woman 
named  Philinna),  should  bo  declared  king,  rescning,  however,  to 
the  child  of  Roxana,  if  a  son  should  be  born,  a  share  in  the  sov- 
ereignty: that  the  government  of  Macedonia  and  Greece  should 
be  divided  between  Antipater  and  Craterus :  that  Ptolemy  should 
preside  over  Egypt  and  the  adjacent  countries :  that  ^Yjitigunua 
should  have  Phrygia  Proper,  Lycia,  and  Pam])hylia:  that  the 
Ilellespontine  Phrygia  sliould  be  assigned  to  Lconnutus  :  that 
Eumones  should  have  the  satrapy  of  Pai)hlagonia  and  Cappadocia, 
which  countries,  however,  still  remained  to  be  subdued:  and  that 
Thrace  should  be  committed  to  Lysimachus.  Perdiccas  reserved 
for  himself  the  command  of  tlie  horse-guards,  the  post  before  held 
by  Ilephajstion,  in  virtue  of  wliic'i  he  became  the  guardian  of  Philip 
ArrhidiBus,  the  nomiual  sovereign.  It  was  not  for  some  time  after 
these  arrangements  had  been  completed  that  the  last  rites  were 
paid  to  Alexander's  remains.  They  were  conveyed  to  Alexandria, 
and  de])Osited  in  a  cemetery  which  afterw.ards  became  the  burial- 
place  of  the  Ptolemies.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  magnificence 
of  the  funeral  car,  which  was  adorned  with  ornaments  of  mass»vc 
gold,  and  was  so  heavy  that  it  was  more  than  a  year  in  being  con- 
veyed from  Babylon  to  Syrin,  tliough  drawn  by  81  mules.  In  due 
time  Roxana  was  delivered  of  a  sou,  to  whom  the  name  of  Alex- 
ander was  given,  and  who  was  declared  the  partner  of  Arrhidanis 
in  the  empire.  Roxana  had  ])reviously  inveigled  Statira  and  her 
sister  Drypetis  to  Babylon,  where  she  caused  them  to  be  secretly 
assassinated. 

perdiccas  ])ossessed  more  power  than  any  of  Alexander's  gen- 
erals, and  he  now  aspired  to  the  INIacedonian  throne.  Ilis  designs, 
however,  were  not  unknown  to  Antigonus  and  I'tolemy  ;  and  when 
he  attempted  to  bring  Antigonus  to  trial  for  some  oifence  in  tlie 
government  of  his  satrapy,  that  general  made  liis  escape  to  Mace- 
donia, where  he  revealed  to  Antipater  the  full  extent  of  the  am- 
bitious schemes  of  Perdiccas,  and  thus  at  once  induced  Antij)ater 
and  Craterus  to  unite  in  a  league  with  him  and  Ptolemy,  and 


B.C.  318.  DEATH  OL^  ANTIPATER.  207 

openly  declare  war  aj:;^ainst  the  rep;ent.  Thus  assailed  on  all  sides, 
Fcrdiccas  resolved  to  direct  his  arms  in  the  first  instance  ajjainst 
Ptolemy.  In  the  spring  of  b.c.  321  he  accordingly  set  out  on  his 
march  against  Egypt,  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  and  ac- 
companied by  Pliilip  Arrhidoius,  and  Koxana  and  her  infant  son. 
He  advanced  without  opposition  as  far  as  Pelusium,  bnt  he  found 
the  banks  of  tlie  Nile  strongly  fortilicd  and  guarded  by  Ptolemy, 
and  was  repulsed  in  repeated  attempts  to  force  the  passage  of  the 
river;  in  the  last  of  which,  near  Memphis,  he  lost  great  numbera 
of  men  by  the  depth  and  rapidity  of  the  current.  Perdiccas  had 
never  been  popular  with  the  soldiery,  and  these  disasters  com- 
pletely alienated  their  affections.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  , 
him,  and  some  of  his  chief  officers  murdered  him  in  his  tent,        - 

The  death  of  Perdiccas  was  followed  by  a  fresh  distribution  of 
the  provinces  of  the  empire.  At  a  meeting  of  the  generals  held 
at  Triparadisus  in  Syria,  towards  tlie  end  of  the  year  321  B.C., 
Antipater  was  declared  regent,  retaining  the  government  of  Mace- 
donia and  Greece;  Ptolemy  Avas  continued'in  the  government  of 
Egypt ;  Seleucus  received  the  satrapy  of  Babylon  ;  whilst  Antig- 
onus  not  only  retained,  his  old  province,  but  Avas  rcAvarded  with 
that  of  Susiana. 

Antipater  did  not  long  survive  these  CA^ents.  He  died  in  the 
year  318,  at  the  adA'anced  age  of  80,  leaving  Polysperchon,  one  of 
Alexander's  oldest  generals,  regent ;  much  to  the  snrprise  and 
mortification  of  his  son  Cassander,  Avho  received  onlv  the  second- 
ary  dignity  of  Chiliarch,  or  commander  of  the  cavalry.  Cassander 
Avas  now  bent  on  obtaining  the  regency  ;  but,  seeing  no  hope  of 
success  in  Macedonia,  he  Avent  OA'cr  to  Asia  to  solicit  the  assist- 
ance of  Antigonus. 

Polysi)erchon,  on  his  side,  sought  to  conciliate  the  friendship  of 
tiic  Grecian  states  by  proclaiming  tliera  all  free  and  independent, 
and  by  abolishing  the  oligarchies  Avhich  had  been  set  up  by  Antij)- 
ater.  In  order  to  enforce  these  measures,  Polysperchon  prepared 
to  march  into  Greece,  Avhilst  his  son  Alexander  AA^as  despatched 
beforehand  Avith  an  army  tOAvards  Athens,  to  compel  the  Mace- 
donian garrison  under  the  command  of  Nicanor  to  evacuate  Mu- 
nychia.  Nicanor,  hoAvever,  refused  to  mov^e  Avithout  orders  from 
Cassander,  Avhose  general  he  declared  himself  to  be.  Phocion 
Avas  suspected  of  intriguing  in  faA'our  of  Nicanor,  and,  being  ac- 
cused of  treason,  fled  to  Alexander,  now  encamped  before  the  Avails 
of  Athens.  Alexander  sent  Phocion  to  his  father,  Avho  sent  him 
back  to  Athens  in  chains,  to  be  tried  by  the  Athenian  people. 
The  theatre,  where  his  trial  Avas  to  take  place,  AA-as  soon  full  to 
overflowing.    Phocion  Avas  assailed  on  '^verv  side  bv  the  clamour.*' 


208  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXL 

of  his  enemies,  which  prevented  his  defence  from  being  heard, 
and  he  Avas  condemned  to  deatli  by  a  show  of  hands.  To  the 
hxst  rhocion  maintained  his  calm  and  dif^nilied,  but  somewhat 
contemptuous  bearing.  When  some  wretched  man  spat  upon  liim 
as  he  passed  to  tlie  prison,  "Will  no  one,"  said  he,  "check  this 
fellow's  indecency?"  To  one  who  asked  him  whether  he  had  any 
message  to  leave  for  his  son  Thocus,  he  answered,  "  Only  that  lie 
bear  no  grudge  against  the  Athenians."  And  when  the  hemlock 
which  had  been  i)rcpared  was  found  insufficient  for  all  the  con- 
demned, and  the  jailer  would  not  furnish  more  unless  he  was  paid 
for  it,  "Give  the  man  his  money,"  said  Phocion  to  one  of  his 
friends,  "since  at  Athens  one  cannot  even  die  for  nothing."  lie 
died  in  B.C.  317,  at  the  age  of  85.  Tlic  Athenians  afterwards  re- 
pented of  their  conduct  towards  Phocion.  His  bones,  which  had 
been  cast  out  on  the  frontiers  of  iMegara,  were  brought  back  to 
Athens,  and  .a  bronze  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

Whilst  Alexander  was  negotiating  with  Kicanor  about  the  sur- 
render of  ^lunychia,  Cassander  arrived  in  the  Pincns  with  a  con- 
siderable army,  with  which  Antigonus  had  supplied  him.  Poly- 
sperchon  was  obliged  to  retire  from  Athens,  and  Cassander  estab- 
lished an  oligarcliical  government  in  the  city  under  the  presidency 
of  Demetrius  of  Phalerus. 

Altliough  Polyspcrchon  was  supported  by  Olympias,  the  mother 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  he  proved  no  matcli  for  Cassander,  who 
became  master  of  Macedonia  after  the  fall  of  Pydna  in  B.C.  310. 
In  this  city  Olympias  had  taken  refuge  together  with  Roxana  and 
her  son  ;  buf,  after  a  blockade  of  some  months,  it  was  obliged  to 
surrender.  01ymi)ias  had  stii)ulated  that  her  life  should  be  sj»ared, 
but  Cassander  soon  afterwards  caused  her  to  be  murdered,  and 
kept  Roxana  and  her  son  in  custody  in  the  citadel  of  Amphipolis. 
Shortly  afterwards  Cassander  began  the  restoration  of  Tliebcs 
(is.c.  315),  in  the  twentieth  year  after  its  destruction  by  Alexan- 
der, a  measure  highly  popular  with  the  Greeks. 

A  new  war  now  broke  out  i»  the  East.  Antigonus  had  become 
the  most  powerful  of  Alexander's  successors.  He  had  con(piered 
Eumenes,  who  had  long  delied  his  arms,  and  he  now  began  to 
dispose  of  the  })rovinces  as  he  thouglit  fit.  llis  increasing  ])()wer 
and  ambitious  jjroji'cts  led  to  a  general  coalition  against  him, 
consisting  of  Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  Cassander,  and  Lysimachus,  tho 
governor  of  Thrace.  The  war  began  in  the  year  315,  and  wtM 
carried  on  with  great  vehemence  and  alternate  success  in  Syiia, 
Phienicia,  Asia  Minor,  and  (irecce.  After  four  years  all  parties 
became  exhausted  with  the  struggle,  and  ])cace  was  accordingly 
concluded  in  311,  on  condition  that  the  Greek  cities  should  be  free. 


B.C.  307.  EXPEDITION  OF  DEMETRIUS.  209 

that  Cassandcr  should  retain  his  authority  in  Europe  till  Alexan- 
der came  of  ago,  that  Ptolemy  and  Lysimachus  should  keep  pos- 
session of  E.c:ypt  and  Thrace  respectively,  and  that  Antigonus 
should  liave  the  government  of  all  Asia.  This  liollow  peace,  which 
had  been  merely  patched  up  for  the  convenience  of  the  parties  con- 
cerned, was  not  of  long  duration.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  im- 
mediate cause  of  another  of  those  crimes  which  disgrace  the  his- 
tory of  Alexander's  successors.  His  son,  Alexander,  who  had  now 
attained  the  age  of  sixteen,  Avas  still  shut  up  with  his  mother  Rox' 
ana  in  Amphipolis ;  and  his  partisans,  with  injudicious  zeal,  loud- 
ly expressed  their  wish  that  he  should  be  released  and  placed  upon 
the  throne.  In  order  to  avert  this  event,  Cassandcr  contrived  the 
secret  murder  both  of  the  mother  and  the  son. 

This  abominable  act,  however,  does  not  appear  to  h?.ve  caused 
a  breach  of  the  peace.  Ptolemy  was  the  first  to  break  it  (b.c. 
310), under  the  pretext  that  Antigonus,  by  keeping  his  gaiTisons  in 
the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  and  the  islands,  had  not  respected  that 
article  of  the  treaty  which  guaranteed  Grecian  freedom.  After 
the  war  had  lasted  three  years  Antigonus  resolved  to  make  a  rig- 
orous  effort  to  wrest  Greece  from  the  hands  of  Cassandcr  and 
Ptolemy,  who  held  all  tiie  principal  towns  in  it.  Accordingly,  in 
the  summer  of  307  B.C.  he  despatched  his  son  Demetrius  from 
Ephesus  to  Athens,  Avith  a  fleet  of  250  sail,  and  5000  talents  in 
money.  Demetrius,  who  afterwards  obtained  the  name  of  "  Poli- 
orcetes,"  or  "Besieger  of  Cities,"  Avas  a  young  man  of  ardent  tem- 
perament and  great  abilities.  Upon  arriving  at  the  Pira;us  he 
immediately  ])roclaimed  the  object  of  his  expedition  to  be  the  lib- 
eration of  Athens  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Macedonian  garrison. 
Supported  by  the  Macedonians,  Demetrius  the  Phalerean  had  now 
ruled  Athens  for  a  period  of  more  than  ten  years.  Of  mean  birth, 
Demetrius  the  Phalerean  owed  his  elevation  entirelv  to  his  talents 
and  perseverance.  His  skill  as  an  orator  raised  him  to  distinc- 
iion  among  his  countrymen  ;  and  his  politics,  which  led  him  to 
embrace  the  party  of  Phocion,  recommended  him  to  Cassandcr 
and  the  Macedonians.  lie  cultivated  many  branches  of  literature, 
and  was  at  once  an  historian,  a  philosopher,  and  a  poet ;  but  nons 
of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us.  The  Athenians  heard  with 
pleasure  the  proclamations  of  the  son  of  Antigonus ;  his  name- 
sake, the  Plialerean,  was  obliged  to  surrender  the  city  to  him,  and 
to  close  his  political  career  by  retiring  to  Thebes.  The  Macedo- 
nian garrison  in  Munychia  offered  a  slight  resistance,  which  was 
soon  overcome.  Demetrius  Poliorcctcs  then  formally  announced 
to  the  Athenian  assembly  the  restoration  of  their  ancient  consti- 
tution, and  promised  them  a  large  donative  of  corn  and  ehip-tim- 

O 


210  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Cuap.  XXL 

bsr.  This  munificence  was  repaid  by  the  Athenians  -with  the  basest 
and  most  abject  flattery.  Both  Demetrius  and  his  father  were  dei- 
fied, and  two  new  tribes,  those  of  Antif:r<>ni:is  and  Demctrias,  were 
added  to  the  existing  ten  which  derived  their  names  from  the  an- 
cient licrocs  of  Attica. 

Demetrius  roliorcGtcs  did  not,  however,  remain  h^ng  at  Athens. 
Early  in  300  u.c.  he  was  recalled  by  his  father,  and,  sailing  to  Cy- 
prus, undertook  the  siege  of  Salamis.  Ptolemy  hastened  to  its 
relief  with  UO  vessels  and  10,000  troops.  The  battle  that  ensued 
was  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  the  annals  of  ancient  naval 
warfare,  more  particularly  on  account  of  the  vast  size  of  the  ves- 
sels engaged.  Ptolemy  was  completely  defeated ;  and  so  import, 
ant  was  the  victory  deemed  ])y  Antigonus,  that  on  the  strength 
of  it  he  assumed  the  title  of  king,  wliich  lie  also  conferred  upon 
his  son.  This  example  was  followed  by  Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  and 
"iysimachus. 

D;jmctrius  now  undertook  an  expedition  against  Rhodes,  Avhich 
■iiad  refused  its  aid  in  the  attack  upon  Ptolemy.  It  was  from  the 
memorable  siege  of  Rhodes  that  Demetrius  obtained  his  name  of 
"Poliorcetes."  After  in  vain  attempting  to  take  the  town  from 
the  sea-side,  by  means  of  floating  batteries,  from  which  stones  of 
enormous  weight  were  hurled  from  engines  with  incredible  force 
against  the  walls,  ho  determined  to  alter  his  ])]an  and  invest  it  on 
the  land-side.  With  the  assistance  of  Epimachus,  an  Athenian 
engmeer,  he  constructed  a  machine  whidi,  in  anticipation  of  its 
effect,  was  called  IIelei)ulis,  or  "the  city-taker."  This  was  a  square 
wooden  tower,  150  feet  high,  and  divided  into  nine  stories,  filled 
with  armed  men,  who  discliarged  missiles  through  apertures  in 
the  sides.  When  armed  and  jtrcpared  for  attack,  it  required  the 
strength  of  2300  men  to  set  this  enormous  machine  in  motion. 
But,  though  it  was  assisted  by  tlie  operation  of  two  battering-rams, 
each  150  feet  long,  and  propelled  by  the  labour  of  1000  men,  the 
Rhodiaus  were  so  active  in  re])airing  the  broaclies  made  in  their 
walls,  that,  after  a  year  spent  in  the  vain  attempt  to  take  the  town, 
Demetrius  was  forced  to  retire  and  grant  the  Rhodiaus  peace. 

In  301  15. c.  the  struggle  between  Antigonus  and  his  rivals  was 
broug'at  to  a  close  by  tiie  battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia,  iu  which  An- 
tigonus was  killed,  and  his  army  completely  defeated.  He  had 
attained  the  age  of  81  at  the  time  of  his  death.  A  third  partition 
of  the  empire  of  Alexander  was  now  made.  Seleucus  and  Lysim- 
achus  shared  between  them  the  possessions  of  Antigonus.  Ly- 
simachus  seems  to  have  had  the  greater  ])art  of  Asia  Minor,  whilst 
the  whole  country  from  the  coast  of  Syria  to  the  Eu|)hratcs,  as 
well  as  a  part  of  Phrygia  and  Ca])padocia,  fell  t'^  the  share  of  So- 


B.C.  '294.  CONQUESTS  OF  DEMETRIUS— rYRRHUS.     211 

Icucus.  Tlic  Litter  founded  on  the  Orontes  a  new  capital  of  his 
empire,  which  he  named  Antioch,  after  his  father  Antiochus,  and 
which  long  continued  to  be  one  of  tlie  most  important  Greek  cities 
in  Asia.  The  ftill  of  Antigonus  secured  Cassander  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Greece. 

Demetrius  was  now  a  fugitive,  but  in  tlie  foilovring  year  he  was 
agreeably  surprised  by  receiving  an  euibassy  from  Seleucus,  by 
which  that  monarch  solicited  his  daughter  Stratonlce'  in  marriage. 
Demetrius  gladly  granted  the  i^equest,  and  found  himself  so  much 
strengthened  by  this  alliance,  that  in  the  spring  of  the  year  29G  he 
was  in  a  condition  to  attack  Athens,  which  he  captured  after  a  long 
siege,  and  drove  out  the  bloodthirsty  tyrant  Lachares,  who  had  been 
established  there  by  Cassander. 

Meanwhile  Cassander  had  died  shortly  before  the  siege  of  Athens, 
and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  IMacedon  by  his  eldest  son, 
Philip  IV.*  But  that  young  prince  died  in  295,  and  the  succes- 
sion was  disputed  between  his  two  brothers,  Antipater  and  Alex- 
ander. Demetrius  availed  himself  of  the  distracted  state  of  Mac- 
edonia to  make  himself  master  of  that  country  (b.c.  294).  He 
reigned  over  Macedonia,  and  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  about 
seven  years.  He  aimed  at  recovering  the  whole  of  his  father's  do- 
minions in  Asia  ;  but,  before  he  was  ready  to  take  the  field,  his  ad- 
versaries, alarmed  at  his  preparations,  determined  to  forestall  him. 
In  the  spring  of  B.c.  287  Ptolemy  sent  a  powerful  fleet  against 
Greece,  while  Pyrrhus  on  the  one  side,  and  Lysimachus  on  the 
other,  simultaneously  invaded  Macedonia.  Demetrius  had  com- 
pletely alienated  his  own  subjects  by  his  proud  and  haughty  bear- 
ing, and  by  his  lavish  expenditure  on  his  own  luxuries ;  Avhile 


C  Jill  of  Demetrius  Pl  llorcetes. 

Pyrrhus,  by  his  generosity,  afnibility,  and  daring  courage,  had  be- 
come the  hero  of  the  Macedonians,  who  looked  upon  him  as  a  sec- 
ond Alexander.  The  appearance  of  Pyn-hus  was  the  signal  for 
revolt:  the  Macedonian  troops  flocked  to  his  standard,  andDeme- 
*  Philip  Arrhiilseii:^  i.<  callel  Phiiip  III, 


212 


niSTORY  OF  GllEECE. 


CiiAr.  XXL 


'trius  was  compelled  to  fly.  Pvrrhns  now  {isccnded  the  throne  of 
Macedonia,  but  his  reign  was  of  brief  duration  ;  and  at  the  end 

I  of  seven  montlis  he  was  in  turn  driven  out  by  Lysiniai-lius.  De- 
metrius made  several  attempts  to  regain  his  jtower  in  Greece,  and 
then  S3t  sail  for  Asia,  where  he  successively  endeavoured  to  estab- 
lish himself  in  the  territories  of  Lysimaehus,  and  of  his  son-in-law 
Seleucus.  Falling  at  length  into  the  hands  of  the  latter,  he  waa 
kept  in  a  kind  of  magnificent  captivity  in  a  royal  residence  in 
Syria,  where,  in  283,  at  the  early  age  of  55,  his  checkered  career 
was  brought  to  a  close,  partly  by  chagrin,  and  i)artly  by  the  sensual 
indulgences  v.ith  which  he  endeavoured  to  divert  it. 

Lysimaehus,  Seleucus,  and  Ptolemy  now  divided  the  empire  of 

':  Alexander  between  them.  In  Egyj)!  the  aged  Ptolemy  had  abdi- 
cated in  285  in  fovour  of  his  son  by  Berenice,  afterwards  known  as 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  to  the  exclusion  of  his  eldest  son,  Ptol- 
emy Ceraunus,  by  his  wife  Eurydicc.  Ptolemy  Ceraunus  quitted 
Egypt  in  disgust,  and  fled  to  the  court  of  Lysimaehus ;  and  Arsi- 
noe,  the  wife  of  Lysimaehus,  jealous  of  her  stepson  Agathocles,  the 


(Join  of  Ptolemy  I.,  Soter. 

heir-apparent  to  the  throne,  and  desirous  of  securing  the  succes- 
sion for  her  own  children,  conspired  with  Ptolemy  Ceraunus  against 
the  life  of  Agathocles.  She  even  procured  the  consent  of  Lysim- 
aehus to  his  murder  ;  and,  after  some  vain  attempts  to  make  away 
with  him  by  i)oison,  he  was  ilung  into  prison,  where  Ptolemy  Ce- 
raunus desi)atdioil  him  with  his  own  hand.  Lysandra,  the  mother 
of  Agathocles,  Hod  with  the  rest  of  her  family  to  Seleucus,  to  de- 
mand from  him  protection  and  vengeance  ;  and  Seleucus,  induced 
by  the  hojjes  of  success  inspired  by  the  discontent  and  dissen- 
sions which  so  foul  an  act  had  excited  among  the  subjects  of  Ly- 
simaehus, espoused  her  cause.  The  hostilities  which  ensued  be- 
tween him  and  Lysimnclius  were  brought  to  a  termination  by  tiie 
j  battle  of  Corupedion,  fought  near  Sardis  in  2S1,  in  whlcli  Lysim- 
aehus was  defeated  and  slain.  By  this  victory,  INIacedonia,  and 
the  whole  of  Alexander's  cmi)irc,  with  the  cxecptiou  of  Egyi)t, 


B.C.  280.       ASSASSINATION  OF  SELEUCUS. 


213 


southern  Syria,  Cyprus,  and  part  of  Phoenicia,  fell  under  the  scep- 
tre of  Selcucus. 


Coin  of  Selcucus. 


Tliat  monarch,  wlio  had  not  beheld  his  native  land  since  he 
first  joined  the  expedition  of  Alexander,  now  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont to  take  possession  of  Macedonia.  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  who, 
after  the  battle  of  Corupedion,  liad  thrown  himself  on  the  mercy 
of  Seleucus,  and  had  been  received  with  forgiveness  and  favour, 
accompanied  him  on  his  journey.  The  murder  of  Agathocles  had 
not  been  committed  by  Ptolemy  merely  to  oblige  Arsinod.  Ho 
had  even  then  designs  upon  the  supreme  power,  which  he  now  com- 
pleted by  another  crime.  As  Seleucus  stopped  to  sacrifice  at  a 
celebrated  altar  near  Lysimachia  in  Thrace,  Ptolemy  treacherous- 
ly assassinated  him  by  stabbing  him  in  the  back  (280).  After 
this  base  and  cowardly  act,  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  who  gave  himself 
out  as  the  avenger  of  Lysimachus,  was,  by  one  of  those  moA^emcnts 
wholly  inexplicable  to  our  modern  notions,  saluted  king  by  the 
army;  but  the  Asiatic  dominions  of  Seleucus  fell  to  his  son  Anti- 
ochus,  surnamed  Soter.  The  crime  of  Ptolemy,  however,  was 
speedily  overtaken  by  a  just  punishment.  In  the  very  same  year 
his  kingdom  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace  was  invaded  by  an  im- 
mense host  of  Celts,  and  Ptolemy  fell  at  the  head  of  the  forces 
which  he  led  against  them.  A  second  invasion  of  the  same  bar- 
barians compelled  the  Greeks  to  raise  a  force  for  their  defence, 
which  was  intrusted  to  the  command  of  the  Athenian  Callippus 
(b.c.  279).  On  this  occasion  the  Celts,  attracted  by  the  report  of 
treasures  whicli  were  now  perhaps  little  more  than  an  empty  name, 
penetrated  as  fiir  southwards  as  Delphi,  with  the  view  of  plunder- 
ing the  temple.  The  god,  it  is  said,  vindicated  his  sanctuary  on 
this  occasion  in  the  same  supernatural  manner  as  when  it  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Persians :  it  is  at  all  events  certain  that  the  Celts 
were  repulsed  with  great  loss,  including  that  of  their  leader  Bren- 
nus.  NcA-ertheless,  some  of  their  tribes  succeeded  in  establishing: 
themselves  near  tlie  Danube ;  others  settled  on  the  sea-coast  of 


214  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXI 

Thrace ;  M'hilst  a  third  portion  passed  over  into  Asia,  and  garo 
their  name  to  tlie  country  called  Galatia. 

After  the  death  of  I'tuleniy  ("crainuis,  IMacedonia  fell  for  somo 
timo  into  a  state  of  anarchy  and  confusion,  and  the  crown  wfts  dis- 
puted by  several  potentates.  At  length,  in  278,  Antigonus  Gonatas, 
son  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  succeeded  in  establishing  himself  on 
the  tiirone  of  Macedonia ;  and,  with  tlie  exceptioii  of  two  or  tb.rec 
years  (274:-272)  during  which  he  was  temporarily  expelled  by 
Pyrrhus,  he  continued  to  retain  possession  of  it  till  his  death  in 
239,  The  struggle  between  Antigonus  and  Pyrrhus  was  brought 
to  a  close  at  Argos  in  272.  Pyrrhus  had  marched  into  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus with  a  large  force  in  order  to  make  war  upon  Sparta,  but 
with  the  collateral  design  of  reducing  the  ])laccs  wliifh  still  held 
out  for  Antigonus.  Pyrrhus,  having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  tako 
Sparta,  marched  against  Argos,  where  Antigonns  also  arrived 
witli  his  forces.  Both  armies  entered  the  city  by  oi)posite  gates; 
and  in  a  battle  which  ensued  in  the  streets,  I'yrrhusAvas  struck  from 
his  horse  by  a  tile  hurled  by  a  woman  from  a  house-top,  and  was 
then  despatched  by  some  soldiers  of  Antigonus.  Such  was  the 
inglorious  end  of  one  of  the  bravest  and  most  warlike  monarchs 
of  antiqu'.ty,  whoso  character  for  moral  virtue,  though  it  would 
not  stand  the  test  of  modern  scrutin}',  shone  out  consj)icuously  in 
comparison  with  that  of  contemporary  sovereigns. 

Anhgonus  Gonatas  now  made  himself  master  of  the  greater  part 
of  Peloponnesus,  which  he  governed  by  means  of  t}Tants  Avhom  he 
established  in  various  cities. 

While  all  Greece,  with  the  exception  of  Sparta,  seemed  hope- 
lessly prostrate  at  the  feet  of  Macedonia,  a  new  political  power, 
which  sheds  a  lustre  on  the  declining  period  of  Grecian  history, 
arose  in  a  small  province  in  Peloponnesus,  of  which  the  very  name 
has  been  hitherto  rarely  mentioned  since  the  Heroic  Age.  In 
Achaiiv  a  narrow  slip  of  country  npon  the  shores  of  the  Corinth- 
ian Gulf,  a  league,  chiefly  for  religions  purposes,  had  existed  from 
a  very  early  period  among  the  twelve  chief  cities  of  the  province. 
This  league,  however,  had  never  possessed  much  ])olitical  import- 
ance, and  it  had  been  suppressed  by  the  Macedonians.  At  tlie 
time  of  which  we  are  speaking  Antigonns  Gonatas  was  in  jiosses- 
sion  of  all  the  cities  formerly  belonging  to  the  league,  citlicr  by 
means  of  his  garrisons  or  of  the  tyrants  who  were  subservient  to 
him.  It  was,  however,  this  very  opi)ression  that  led  to  a  revival  of 
the  league.  The  Aclucan  towns,  now  only  ten  in  number,  as  two 
had  boen  destroyed  l)y  earthquakes,  began  gradually  to  coalesce 
again  ;  but  Aratus  of  Sicyon,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  char- 
^  actors  of  thi^  period  of  Grecian  historv.  was  the  man  who,  about 


B.C.  251.  THE  ACII^EiVN  LEAGUE.  215 

the  year  251  p.c,  first  called  the  new  league  into  active  political 
existence.  He  had  long  lived  in  exile  at  Argos,  whilst  his  native 
city  groaned  under  the  dominion  of  a  succession  of  tyrants.  Hav- 
ing collected  a  band  of  exiles,  he  surprised  Sicyon  in  the  night 
time,  and  drove  out  the  last  and  most  unpopular  of  these  tyrants. 
Instead  of  seizing  the  tyranny  for  himself,  as  he  might  easily  have 
done,  Aratus  consulted  only  the  advantage  of  his  country,  and 
with  this  view  united  Sicyon  Avith  the  Acbiean  league.  The  ac  • 
cession  of  so  important  a  town  does  not  appear  to  have  altered  the 
constitution  of  the  confederacy.  The  league  was  governed  by  a 
Strategus,  or  general,  whose  functions  were  both  military  and  civ- 
il ;  a  Grammateus,  or  secretary ;  and  a  council  of  ten  Demmrgi. 
The  sovereignty,  hovv-ever,  resided  in  the  general  assembly,  which 
met  tmce  a  year  in  a  sacred  grove  near  iEgium.  It  was  composed 
of  every  Achiean  who  had  attained  the  age  of  tliirty,  and  possessed 
the  right  of  electing  the  officers  of  the  league,  and  of  deciding  all 
questions  of  war,  peace,  foreign  alliances,  and  the  like.  In  the 
year  245  B.C.  Aratus  was  elected  Strategus  of  the  league,  and  again 
in  243.  In  the  latter  of  these  years  he  succeeded  in  wresting 
Corinth  from  the  Macedonians  by  another  nocturnal  surprise, 
and  uniting  it  to  the  league.  The  confederacy  now  spread  with 
wonderful  rapidity.  It  was  soon  joined  by  Troczen,  Epidaiu'us, 
Hermione,  and  other  cities  ;  and  ultimately  embraced  Athens, 
Megara,  -/Egina,  Salamis,  and  the  whole  Peloponnesus,  with  the 
exception  of  Sparta,  Elis,  and  some  of  the  Arcadian  towns. 

Sparta,  it  is  true,  still  continued  to  retain  her  independence,  but 
without  a  shadow  of  her  former  greatness  and  power.  The  ])rimi- 
tivc  simplicity  of  Spartan  manners  had  been  completely  destroyed 
by  the  collection  of  wealth  into  a  few  hands,  and  by  the  consequent 
progress  of  luxury.  The  number  of  Spartan  citizens  had  been  re- 
duced to  700 ;  but  even  of  these  there  were  not  above  a  hundred 
who  possessed  a  sufficient  quantity  of  land  to  maintain  themselves 
in  independence.  The  young  king,  Agis  IV.,  Avho  succeeded  to 
the  crown  in  244,  attempted  to  revive  the  ancient  Spartan  virtue 
by  restoring  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus,  by  cancelling  all  debts, 
and  by  making  a  new  distribution  of  lands  ;  and  with  this  Aiew  he 
relinquished  all  his  own  property,  as  well  as  that  of  his  family,  for 
the  public  good.  But  Agis  perished  in  this  attempt,  and  was  put 
to  death  as  a  traitor  to  liis  order.  A  few  years  afterwards,  how- 
ever, Cleomenes,  the  son  of  Lconidas,  succeeded  in  effecting  the 
reforms  which  had  been  contemplated  by  Agis,  as  well  as  several 
others  which  regarded  military  discipline.  The  effect  of  these 
new  measures  soon  became  visible  in  the  increased  success  of  the 
Spartan  arms.    Aratus  was  so  hard  pressed  that  he  was  comi^ellcd 


216  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXL 

to  solicit  the  assistance  of  the  Macedonians.  Both  Antiponus 
Gonatas  and  Iiis  son  Demetrius  If, — who  liad  reip^ned  in  Mace- 
donia from  239  to  229  u.f. — were  now  dead,  and  the  government 
was  administered  by  Anti^onus  D.Json,  as  guardian  of  Philip,  the 
youthful  son  of  Demetrius  II.  Antigonus  Duson  was  the  grandson 
of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and  the  nephew  of  Antigonus  Gonatas. 
The  Macedonians  comi)elled  liim  to  accept  the  crown  ;  but  he  re- 
mained faithful  to  his  trust  as  guardian  of  Philip,  whoRC  mother 
he  married ;  and  though  he  had  children  of  his  own  by  her,  yet 
Phili])  succeeded  him  on  his  death.*  It  was  to  Antigonus  Duson 
that  Aratus  applied  for  assistance ;  and  though  Cleomcnes  main- 
tained his  ground  for  some  time,  he  was  finally  defeated  by  An- 
tigonus Duson  in  the  Hital  battle  of  Sellasia  in  Laconia  (n.c.  221). 
The  army  of  Cleomenes  was  almost  totally  annihilated;  he  him- 
self was  obliged  to  fly  to  Egypt;  and  Sparta,  which  for  many 
centuries  had  remained  unconquercd,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
victor. 

In  the  following  year  Antigonus  was  succeeded  by  Philip  V., 
the  son  of  Demetrius  II.,  who  was  then  about  sixteen  or  seventeen 
years  of  age.  His  youth  encouraged  the  JEtolians  to  make  preda- 
tory incursions  into  the  Peloponnesus.  That  people  were  a  species 
of  freebooters,  and  the  terror  of  their  neighbours ;  yet  they  were 
united,  like  the  Acluvans,  in  a  confederacy  or  league.  The  -^tolian 
League  was  a  confederation  of  tribes  instead  of  cities,  like  the 
Aclnvan.  The  diet  or  council  of  the  league,  called  the  Pana;tol- 
icum,  assembled  every  autumn,  generally  at  Thermon,  to  elect  the 
strategus  and  other  officers  ;  but  the  details  of  its  affairs  were  con- 
ducted by  a  committee  called  Apoc'efi,  who  seem  to  have  formed 
a  sort  of  permanent  c<nuicil.  The  iEtolians  had  availed  them- 
selves of  the  disorganized  state  of  Greece  consequent  upon  the 
death  of  Alexander  to  extend  their  power,  and  had  gradually 
made  themselves  masters  of  Locris,  Pliocis,  Eoeotia,  together  witli 

*  The  yiiccession  of  ^I:iceiloni;in  king--^  fnini  Alcxnnder  the  Great  to  tho  c» 
tipction  of  the  monarchy  will  be  seen  from  the  following  tublo : 

Ka 

Philip  III.  Arrhidieus .n2.^-•{lC 

( ;,iss;m(ler niC-'JOG 

I'hilip  IV 2.)G-2'.  « 

1  )(iiietriua  I.  Toliorcetes 'J'.)4-'J8T 

ryrrhuH gS7-2SG 

Ljviiiiiichus '.'SiUL.SO 

I'toleiiiy  Conuiini.s  iiiitl  other.s 2S0-'i7T 

AntigoniiH  fJonatas 277-2.19 

DcnietriuH  II 2.T.»-229 

Antigonus  Doson 229-220 

I'liilip  V 220-17.>^ 

I'erdcu.- 17S-1(J7 


B.C.  220. 


THE  iETOLIAN  LEAGUE. 


217 


portions  of  Acarnania,  Thessaly,  and  Epirus.  Thus  both  the  Am- 
phictyonic  Council  and  the  oracle  of  Delplii  were  in  their  power. 
They  had  early  wrested  Naupactus  from  the  Achreans,  and  had 
subsequently  acquired  several  Peloponnesian  cities. 


Coin  of  Philip  V.,  king  of  Macedonia. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  the  ^tolians  at  the  time  of  Philip's 
accession.  Soon  after  that  event  we  find  them,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Dorimachus,  engaged  in  a  series  of  freebooting  expeditions 
in  Messenia,  and  other  parts  of  Peloponnesus.  Aratus  marched  to 
the  assistance  of  the  Messenians  at  the  head  of  the  Achaean  forces, 
but  was  totally  defeated  in  a  battle  near  Caphvffi.  The  Achajans 
now  saw  no  hope  of  safety  except  through  the  assistance  of  Philip. 
That  young  monarch  was  ambitious  and  enterprising,  possessing 
considerable  military  ability  and  much  political  sagacity.  He 
readily  listened  to  the  application  of  the  Achasans,  and  in  220  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  them.  The  war  which  ensued  between 
ihz  ^tolians  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Achreans,  assisted  by  Phil- 
ip, on  the  other,  and  which  lasted  about  three  years,  has  been  call- 
ed the  Social  War.  Philip  gained  several  victories  over  the 
^tolians,  but  he  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  them  in  217, 
because  he  was  anxious  to  turn  his  arms  against  another  and  more 
formidable  power. 

The  great  struggle  now  going  on  between  Rome  and  Carthage 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  whole  civilized  world.  It  was  evi- 
dent that  Greece,  distracted  by  intestine  quarrels,  must  be  soon 
swallowed  up  by  whichever  of  those  great  states  might  prove  suc- 
cessful ;  and  of  the  two,  the  ambition  of  the  Romans,  who  had  al- 
ready gained  a  footing  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  was 
by  far  the  more  formidable  to  Greece.  After  the  conclusion  of  tho 
peace  with  the  vEtolians,  Philip  prepared  a  large  fleet,  which  ho 
employed  to  watch  the  movements  of  the  Romans,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  (216)  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  Hannibal,  which, 
among  other  clauses,  provided  that  the  Romans  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  retain  their  conq  uests  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic. 


£18  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXI 

He  even  meditated  an  invasion  of  Italy,  and,  with  tliat  view,  en- 
deavoured to  make  liimself  master  of  Apollonia  and  Oricnm.  But, 
though  he  succeeded  in  taking  the  hitter  city,  tlic  Romans  sur- 
prised his  camp  whilst  he  was  hesieging  Apollonia,  and  compelled 
liim  to  Lurn  his  ships  and  retire.  Mcanwliile  l^hilip  had  acted  in 
a  most  arbitrary  manner  in  the  affairs  of  Greece ;  and  when  Ara- 
tus  remonstrated  with  him  resj)ecting  his  proceedings,  he  got  rid 
of  his  former  friend  and  counsellor  by  means  of  a  slow  and  secret 
poison  (n.c.  213). 

In  Ji.c.  209,  the  Aclucans,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  JEtolians, 
were  again  induced  to  call  in  tlic  aid  of  Philip.  The  spirit  of  the 
Acluxjans  was  at  this  time  revived  by  Philopocmen,  one  of  the  few 
noble  characters  of  the  period,  and  who  has  been  styled  by  Plu- 
tarch "  the  last  of  the  Greeks."  He  was  a  native  of  Megalopolis 
in  Arcadia,  and  in  208  was  elected  Strategus  of  the  league.  In 
both  these  posts  Philopocmen  made  gi'cat  alterations  and  improve- 
ments in  the  arras  and  discipline  of  the  Achajan  forces,  which  ho 
assimilated  to  those  of  the  Macedonian  phalanx.  These  reforms, 
as  well  as  the  public  spirit  Avith  which  he  had  inspired  the  Achi\}- 
ans,  were  attended  with  the  most  beneficial  results.  In  207Phil- 
opcemen  gained  at  Mantinea  a  signal  victory  over  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians, who  had  joined  the  Roman  alliance ;  4000  of  them  were  left 
upon  the  field,  and  among  them  Machanidas,  who  had  made  him- 
self tyrant  of  Sparta.  This  decisive  battle,  combined  with  the 
withdrawal  of  the  liomans,  who,  being  desirous  of  turning  tlicir 
undivided  attention  towards  Carthage,  had  made  peace  witli  Philip 
(205),  secured  for  a  few  years  the  tranquillity  of  Greece.  It  also 
raised  the  fame  of  Philopocmen  to  its  highest  point ;  and  in  the 
next  Nemcan  festival,  being  a  second  time  general  of  tlie  league, 
he  was  hailed  by  the  assembled  Greeks  as  the  liberator  of  their 
country. 

Upon  the  conclusion  of  the  second  Punic  war  the  Romans  re- 
newed their  enteri)rises  in  Greece,  and  declared  war  against  Philip 
(n.c.  200).  For  some  time  the  war  lingered  on  without  any  de- 
cided success  on  either  side  ;  but  in  198  the  consul  T.  Quiuctiui 
Flamininus  succeeded  in  gaining  over  the  Achaean  league  to  the 
Roman  alliance;  and  as  the  JEtolians  liad  previously  deserted 
;  I'hilip,  both  those  powers  fought  fur  a  sliort  time  on  the  same  side. 
In  197  the  struggle  was  brought  to  a  terniination  by  the  battle  of 
Cynoscephahc,  near  Scotussa,  in  Thessaly,  which  decided  the  fate 
of  the  Macedonian  monarchy.  Philip  was  obliged  to  sue  for 
p^ace,  and  in  the  following  year  (19(1)  a  treaty  was  ratified  by 
which  the  IMaccdunians  were  conij>ellod  to  renounce  their  suprem- 
acy, to  withdraw  their  garrisons  from  the  Grecian  towns,  to  sur- 


B.C.  189.         BATTLE  OF  CYNOSCEPIIALiE.  219 

render  their  fleet,  and  to  pay  1000  talents  for  the  expenses  of  the 
war.  At  the  ensuing  Istlimian  games  Fhimininus  solemnly  pro- 
claimed the  freedom  of  the  Greeks,  and  was  received  by  them  with 
overwliclming  joy  and  gratitude. 

The  iEtolians,  dissatisfied  with  these  arrangements,  persuaded 
Antiochus  III.,  king  of  Syria,  to  enter  into  a  leagiie  against  the 
Romans.  He  passed  over  into  Greece  with  a  wholly  inadequate 
force,  and  Avas  defeated  by  the  Eomans  at  Thermopyla?  (b.c.  191). 
The  ^tolians  were  now  compelled  to  make  head  against  the  Ro- 
mans  by  themselves.  After  some  inftectual  attempts  at  resist- 
ance they  were  reduced  to  sue  for  peace,  Avhich  they  at  length  ob- 
tained, but  on  the  most  humiliating  conditions  (b.c.  189).  Tiiey 
were  required  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Rome,  to  renounce 
all  the  conquests  tiiey  had  recently  made,  to  pay  an  indemnity  of 
500  talents,  and  to  engage  in  future  to  aid  the  Romans  in  their 
Avars.  The  power  of  the  JEtolian  league  was  thus  for  ever  crush' 
ed,  though  it  seems  to  have  existed,  in  name  at  least,  till  a  much 
later  period. 

The  Acha3an  league  still  subsisted,  though  destined  before  long 
to  experience  the  same  fate  as  its  rival.  At  first,  indeed,  it  en- 
joyed the  protection  of  the  Romans,  and  even  acquired  an  exten- 
sion of  members  through  their  influence,  but  this  protectorate  in- 
volved a  state  of  almost  absolute  dependence.  Philopoemen  also 
had  succeeded,  in  tlie  year  192,  in  adding  Sparta  to  the  league, 
v/hich  now  embraced  the  whole  of  Reloponnesus.  But  Sparta  hav- 
ing displayed  symptoms  of  insubordination, Philopoemen  marched 
against  it  in  188,  and  captured  the  city;  when  he  put  to  death 
eighty  of  the  leading  men,  razed  the  walls  and  fortifications,  abol- 
ished the  institutions  of  Lycurgus,  and  compelled  the  citizens  to 
adopt  the  democratic  constitution  of  the  Achaans.  Meanwliile 
the  Romans  regarded  with  satisfaction  tlie  internal  dissensions  of 
Greece,  which  they  foresaw  would  only  render  her  an  easier  prey, 
and  neglected  to  answer  the  appeals  of  the  Spartans  for  protec- 
tion. In  183  tlie  Messcnians,  under  the  leadership  of  Dinocratcs, 
having  revolted  fiom  the  league,  Philopoemen,  who  had  now  at- 
tained the  age  of  70,  led  an  expedition  against  them  ;  but,  having 
fallen  from  his  horse  in  a  skirmish  of  cavalry,  he  was  captured, 
and  conveyed  with  many  circumstances  of  ignominy  to  Messene, 
Avhere,  after  a  sort  of  mock  trial,  he  was  executed.  His  fate  was 
avenged  by  Lycortas,  the  commander  of  the  Achaean  cavalry,  the 
father  of  the  historian  Polybius. 

In  B.C.  179  Philip  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Perseus, 
the  last  monarch  of  Macedonia.  The  latter  years  of  the  reign  of 
Philip  had  been  spent  in  preparations  for  a  renewal  of  the  war. 


220 


HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  XXL 


which  lie  foresaw  to  be  inevitable  ;  yet  a  period  of  seven  years 
elapsed  after  the  accession  of  Terseus  before  the  mutual  enmity 
of  the  two  powers  broke  out  into  oj)en  hostilities.  The  war  was 
waged  three  years  without  any  decisive  result,  but  was  brought 
to  a  conclusion  in  1G8  by  the  consul  L.  iEmilius  Paulus,  who  de- 
feated Perseus  with  great  loss  near  I'ydna.  Perseus  was  carried 
to  Rome  to  adorn  the  triumph  of  Taulus  (1G7),  and  was  permitted 
to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  a  sort  of  honourable  captivity 
at  Alba.  Such  was  the  end  of  the  Macedonian  empire,  which  was 
now  divided  into  four  districts,  each  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an 
oligarchical  council. 


Cuin  of  PcrKCUS,  king  of  Macedonia. 

The  Roman  commissioners  deputed  to  arrange  the  affairs  of 
Macedonia  did  not  confine  their  attention  to  that  province,  but 
evinced  their  design  of  bringing  all  Greece  under  the  l\oman 
SNvay,  In  these  views  they  were  assisted  by  various  despots  and 
traitors  in  different  Grecian  cities,  and  especially  by  Callicrates,  a 
man  of  great  influence  among  the  Acha\ans,  and  who  for  many 
years  lent  himself  as  the  base  tool  of  tlie  Romans  to  cff'ect  the  en- 
slavement of  his  country.  After  the  fall  of  Macedonia,  Callicrates 
denounced  more  than  a  thousand  leading  Achaans  who  had  fa- 
voured the  cause  of  Perseus.  These,  among  whom  was  Polybiua 
the  historian,  were  api)fehended  and  sent  to  Rome  for  trial.  A 
still  harder  fate  Avas  experienced  by  JEtolia,  Pa^otia,  Acarnania. 
and  Epirus.  In  the  last-named  country,  esi)ecially,  no  fewer  tlutji 
seventy  of  the  i)rincipal  towns  were  abandoned  by  Paulus  to  his 
soldiers  for  pillage,  and  150,000  persons  are  said  to  have  been 
sold  into  slavery. 

A  quarrel  between  the  AcluTans  and  Sparta  afforded  the  Romans 
a  pretence  for  crushing  the  small  remains  of  Grecian  inde]iend- 
cnce  by  the  destruction  of  the  Acluvan  league. 

The  Spartans,  feeling  themselves  incompetent  to  resist  the 
Achajans,  appealed  to  the  Romans  for  assistance;  and  in  147  two 
Roman  commissioners  were  sent  to  Greece  to  settle  the  disputes 


B.C.  UG.        GREECE  A  ROMAN  PROVINCE.  22^ 

between  the  two  states.  These  commissioners  decided  tliat  not 
only  S^rnvta,  but  Corinth,  and  all  the  other  cities,  except  those  of 
Achaia,  should  be  restored  to  their  independence.  This  decision 
occasioned  serious  riots  at  Corinth,  the  most  important  city  of  the 
league.  All  the  Spartans  in  the  town  were  seized,  and  even  the 
Roman  commissioners  narrowly  eccaped  violence.  On  their  return 
to  Rome  a  fresh  embassy  Avas  dtcpatched  to  demand  satisfaction 
for  these  outrages.  But  the  violent  and  impolitic  conduct  of  Cri- 
tolaiis,  then  Strategus  of  the  league,  rendered  all  attempts  at  ac- 
commodation fruitless,  and  after  the  return  of  the  ambassadors 
the  Senate  declared  war  against  the  league.  The  cowardice  and 
incompetence  of  Critolaiis  as  a  general  were  only  equalled  by  his 
previous  insolence.  On  the  approach  of  the  Romans  under  Metel- 
lus  from  ISIacedonia  he  did  not  even  venture  to  make  a  stand  at 
Thermopylae  ;  and  being  overtaken  by  them  near  Scarphea  in 
Locris,  he  was  totally  defeated,  and  never  again  heard  of.  Diteus, 
who  succeeded  him  as  Strategus,  displayed  rather  more  energy  and 
courage.  But  a  fresh  Roman  forc3  under  Mummius  having  landed 
on  the  isthmus,  Direus  was  overthrown  in  a  battle  near  Corinth, 
and  that  city  was  immediately  evacuated  not  only  by  the  troops 
of  the  league,  but  also  by  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants.  On 
entering  it  Mummius  put  the  few  males  who  remained  to  the  sword ; 
sold  the  women  and  children  as  slaves ;  and  having  carried  away 
all  its  treasures,  consigned  it  to  the  flames  (b.c.  146).  Corinth 
was  filled  with  masterpieces  of  ancient  art ;  but  Mummius  was  so 
insensible  to  their  surpassing  excellence  as  to  stipulate  with  those 
who  contracted  to  convey  them  to  Italy,  that,  if  any  were  lost  in 
the  passage,  they  should  be  replaced  by  others  of  equal  value ! 
Mummius  then  employed  himself  in  chastising  and  regulating  the 
whole  of  Greece ;  and  ten  commissioners  were  sent  from  Rome  to 
settle  its  futui'e  condition.  The  whole  country,  to  the  borders  of 
Macedonia  and  Epirus,  was  formed  into  a  Roman  province,  under 
the  name  of  Aciiaia,  derived  from  that  confederacy  which  had 
made  the  last  struggle  for  its  political  existence. 


Lyre,  with  seven  strings.    From  a  coin  of  ChalciB. 
CHAPTER  XXII. 

gKETCn   OF   THE    IIISTOllY   OF    GIIEKIC    LITERATURE    FROM    THE 
JiARLIEST  TniES  TO  THE  REIGN  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 

The  Greeks  possessed  two  large  collections  of  epic  poetry.  The 
one  comprised  poems  relating  to  the  great  events  and  enterprises 
of  the  Heroic  Age,  and  characterized  by  a  certain  poetical  unity; 
the  other  included  works  tamer  in  character  and  more  desultory 
in  their  mode  of  treatment,  containing  the  genealogies  of  men  and 
gods,  narratives  of  the  exploits  of  separate  heroes,  and  descriptions 
of  the  ordinary  jmrsuits  of  life.  The  poems  of  the  former  clr.ss 
passed  under  the  name  of  Homer,  while  those  of  the  latter  were 
in  the  same  general  way  ascribed  to  Hcsiod.  The  former  were 
the  productions  of  the  Ionic  and  JEolic  minstrels  in  Asia  Minor, 
among  wliom  Homer  stood  pre-eminent,  and  eclipsed  the  bright- 
ness of  the  rest :  the  latter  were  the  comjiositions  of  a  school  of 
bards  in  the  neighbourhood  of  INIount  Helicon  in  Bccotia,  among 
whom,  in  like  manner,  Hesiod  enjoyed  the  greatest  celebrity.  Tlie 
jiocms  of  both  schools  were  comp'osed  in  tlie  hexameter  metre  and 
in  a  similar  dialect,  but  they  differed  widely  in  almost  every  other 
fjaturc. 

Of  the  Homeric  poems  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  were  the  most 
distinguished  and  have  alone  come  down  to  us.  The  subject  of 
tlie  Iliad  was  the  cxjiloits  of  Achilles  and  of  the  other  Grecian 
jierocs  before  Ilium  or  Troy ;  that  of  the  Odyssey  was  the  wander- 
ings and  adventures  of  Odysseus  or  Ulysses  after  the  cajiture  of 
Trey  on  his  return  to  his  native  island.  Throughout  the  flourish- 
ing period  of  Greek  literature  these  unrivalled  works  were  uni- 


Chap.  XXII.  POEMS  OF  HOMER.  22S 

versally  regarded  as  the  productions  of  a  single  mind ;  but  thcK 

was  very  little  agreement  respecting  the  place  of  the  poet's  hirtU 

the  details  of  his  life,  or  the  times  in  which  he 

lived.      Seven  cities  laid  claim  to  Homer's  birth, 

and  most  of  them  had  legends  to  tell  respecting 

his  romantic  parentage,  his  alleged  blindness, 

and  his  life  of  an  itinerant  bard  acquainted  with 

poverty  and  sorrow.     It  cannot  he  disputed  that 

he  was  an  Asiatic  Greek ;  but  this  is  the  only 

fact  in  his  life  which  can  be  regarded  as  certain. 

Several  of  the  best  writers  of  antiquity  supposed 

him  to  have  been  a  native  of  tlie  island  of  Chios ; 

but  most  modern  scholars  believe   Smyrna  to 

have  been  his  birthplace.     His  most  probable 

date  is  about  b.c.  850.  Homer. 

The  mode  in  which  these  poems  were  preserved  has  occasioned 
great  controversy  in  modern  times.  Even  if  they  were  committed 
to  writing  by  the  poet  himself,  and  were  handed  down  to  posterity 
in  this  manner,  it  is  certain  that  they  were  rarely  read.  We  must 
endeavour  to  realize  the  difference  between  ancient  Greece  and 
our  own  times.  During  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Athenian 
literature  manuscripts  were  indifferently  written,  without  division 
into  parts,  and  without  marks  of  punctuation.  They  were  scarce 
and  costly,  could  be  obtained  only  by  the  wealthy,  and  read  only 
by  those  who  had  had  considerable  literary  training.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  Greeks  could  never  become  a  reading  people ; 
and  thus  the  great  mass  even  of  the  Athenians  became  acquainted 
with  the  productions  of  the  leading  poets  of  Greece  only  by  hear- 
ing them  recited  at  their  solemn  festivals  and  on  other  public  oc- 
casions. This  was  more  strikingly  the  case  at  an  earlier  period. 
The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  were  not  read  by  individuals  in  private, 
but  were  sung  or  recited  at  festivals  or  to  assembled  companies. 
The  bard  originally  sung  his  own  lays  to  the  accompaniment  of  \u» 
lyre.  He  was  succeeded  by  a  body  of  professional  reciters,  called 
lihapaodists,  who  rehearsed  the  poems  of  others,  and  who  appear 
at  early  times  to  have  had  exclusive  possession  of  the  Homeric 
poems.  But  in  the  seventh  century  before  the  Christian  era  lit- 
eraiy  culture  began  to  prevail  among  the  Greeks,  and  men  of  edu- 
cation and  wealth  were  naturally  desirous  of  obtaining  copies  of 
fno  great  poet  of  the  nation.  From  this  cause  copies  came  to  bo 
circulated  among  the  Greeks ;  but  most  of  them  contained  only 
separate  portions  of  the  poems,  or  single  rhapsodes,  as  they  were 
called.  Pisistratus,  the  tyrant  or  despot  of  Athens,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  person  who  collected  and  arranged  the  poems  in 


224  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXII. 

their  present  form,  in  order  that  they  miglit  be  recited  at  the  gic;4 
1'anathcna.ic  festival  at  Alliens. 

Tlirce  works  liavc  come  down  to  us  bearing  the  name  of  Ilcsiod 
— the  "  Works  and  Days,"  the  "Tlieo^ony,"  and  a  dcscri]»tion  of 
the  "Shield  of  Hercules."  Many  ancient  critics  believed  the 
"Works  and  Days"  to  be  the  only  {genuine  work  of  llesiod,  and 
their  o])inion  has  been  ado]>ted  l)y  most  modern  scholars.  Wc 
learn  from  this  Mork  that  llesiod  was  a  native  of  Ascra,  a  village 
at  tlie  foot  of  iSIount  Helicon,  to  which  his  father  had  migrated 
from  the  iEolian  Cyme  in  Asia  Minor.  He  further  tells  us  that 
he  gained  the  ])rize  at  Chalcis  in  a  poetical  contest,  and  that  ho 
was  robbed  of  a  fair  fb^-e  of  his  heritage  by  the  unrighteous  de- 
cision of  judges  wl;o  hai~  ?en  Ijribed  by  his  brother  Perscs.  The 
latter  became  afterwards  i«  luced  in  circumstances,  and  api)licd  to 
his  brother  for  relief;  and  it  is  to  him  that  Hesiod  addresses  his 
didactic  poem  of  the  "Works  and  Days,"  in  which  he  lays  down 
various  moral  and  social  maxims  for  tlie  regulation  of  his  conduct 
and  his  life.  It  contains  an  interesting  re])resentation  of  the  feel- 
ings, habits,  and  superstitions  of  tlie  rural  pojnilation  of  Greece 
in  the  earlier  ages.  Respecting  the  date  of  llesiod  nothing  cer- 
tain can  be  affirmed.  Modern  Avriters  usually  suppose  him  to 
have  flourished  two  or  three  generations  later  than  Homer. 

The  commencement  of  Greek  lyric  })oetry  as  a  cultivated  species 
of  composition  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  be- 
fore the  Ciiristian  era.  No  important  event  cither  in  the  public 
or  private  life  of  a  Greek  could  dispense  with  this  accomjianiment ; 
and  the  lyric  song  was  equally  needed  to  solemnize  the  worshi]) 
of  the  gods,  to  cheer  the  march  of  battle,  or  to  enliven  the  festive 
board.  The  lyric  poetry,  "with  the  exception  of  that  of  Pindar,  has 
almost  entirely  perished,  and  all  that  wc  i)Ossess  of  it  consists  of  a 
few  songs  and  isolated  fragments. 

The  great  satirist  Auciiii.ociius  was  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  lyric  poets.  He  Avas  a  native  of  the 
island  of  I'aros,  and  flourished  about  the  year  700  u.c.  His  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  his  terrible  satires,  com])osed  in  the  Iambic  mctrC; 
in  which  he  gave  vent  to  the  bitterness  of  a  disa])])ointed  man. 

TviiTiEUS  and  Alc.man  were  the  two  great  lyric  jjoets  of  iSparta, 
though  neither  of  them  was  a  native  of  Lnecdiemon.  The  person- 
al history  of  Tyrtajus,  and  his  warlike  songs,  which  roused  the 
fainting  courage  of  the  8i)artans  during  the  second  IMessenian  war, 
have  already  been  mentioned  (p.  2r>).  vMcman  was  origiimlly  a 
Lydian  slave  in  a  Spartan  family,  and  Avas  einnncipated  by  iiis 
master.  He  lived  shortly  after  the  seconil  Messenian  Avar.  His 
poems  partake  of  the  characicr  of  this  period,  Avhit'U  Avas  one  of 


CiiAP.  XXII.      ARION—ALCiEUS— SAPPHO.  225 

repose  and  enjoyment  after  tlie  fatigues  and  perils  of  war.  Many 
of  bis  songs  celebrate  the  pleasures  of  good  eating  and  drinking ; 
but  the  more  important  were  intended  to  be  sung  by  a  chorus  at 
the  public  festivals  of  Sparta. 

Ariox  was  a  native  of  Metbymna  in  Lesbos,  and  lived  some 
time  at  the  court  of  Pcriandcr,  tyrant  of  Corinth,  who  began  to 
reign  n.c.  G25.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life  beyond  the  beauti- 
ful story  of  his  escape  from  the  sailors  with  whom  he  sailed  from 
Sicily  to  Corinth.  On  one  occasion,  thus  runs  the  story,  Ai-ion 
went  to  Sicily  to  take  part  in  a  musical  contest.  He  won  the 
prize,  and,  laden  with  presents,  he  embarked  in  a  Corinthian  ship 
to  return  to  his  friend  Periander.  The  rude  sailors  coveted  his 
treasure,  and  meditated  his  murder.  After  imploring  them  in 
vain  to  spare  his  life,  he  obtained  ])ermission  to  play  for  the  last 
time  on  his  beloved  lyi'e.  In  festal  attire,  he  placed  himself  on 
the  prow  of  the  vessel,  invoked  the  gods  in  inspired  strains,  and 
then  threw  himself  into  the  sea.  But  many  song-loving  dolphins 
had  assembled  round  the  vessel,  and  one  of  them  now  took  the 
bard  on  its  back,  and  carried  him  to  Tajnarum,  from  whence  ho 
returned  to  Corinth  in  safety,  and  related  his  adventure  to  Peri- 
ander. Upon  the  arrival  of  the  Corinthian  vessel,  Periander  in- 
quired of  the  sailors  after  Arion,  who  replied  that  he  had  remain- 
ed behind  at  Tarentum  ;  but  when  Arion,  at  the  bidding  of  Peri- 
ander, came  forward,  the  sailors  owned  their  guilt,  and  were  pun- 
ished according  to  their  desert.  The  great  improvement  in  Ij'rio 
poetry  ascribed  to  Arion  is  the  invention  of  the  Dithyramb.  This 
was  a  choral  song  and  dance  in  honour  of  the  god  Dionysus,  and 
is  of  great  interest  in  tlie  history  of  poetry,  since  it  was  the  germ 
from  Avhich  sprung  at  a  later  time  the  magniticent  productions  of 
the  tragic  Muse  at  Athens. 

Alc^us  and  Sappho  were  both  natives  of  Mytilcne,  in  the  isl' 
and  of  Lesbos,  and  flourished  n.c.  GlO-aSO.  Their  songs  wer? 
composed  for  a  single  voice,  and  not  for  the  chorus,  and  they  wcro 
each  tlie  inventor  of  a  new  metre,  which  boars  their  name,  and  is 
familiar  to  us  by  the  well-known  odes  of  Horace.  Their  poetry 
was  the  Avarm  outpouring  of  the  writers'  inmost  feelings,  and  pre- 
sents the  lyric  poetry  of  the  iEtolians  at  its  highest  point. 

Alcajus  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil  dissensions  of  his  native 
state,  and  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  aristocratical  party, 
to  which  he  belonged  by  birth.  When  the  nobles  were  driven 
into  exile,  he  endeavoured  to  cheer  their  spirits  by  a  number  of 
most  animated  odes,  full  of  invectives  against  the  popular  party 
and  its  leaders. 

Of  the  events  of  Sappho's  life  wc  have  scarcely  any  informa- 

P 


22G 


IIISTOIIY  OF  GREECE. 


CuAP.  XXIL 


tion ;  and  the  common  story  that,  bcinff  in  love  with  Pliaon,  and 
finding  her  love  unrequited,  she  leaped  down  from  the  Leucadian 
rock,  seems  to  have  been  an  invention  of  later  times. 

Anacreon  was  a  native  of  tlie  Ionian  city  of  Tcos.  He  spent 
part  of  his  life  at  Samos,  under  the  patronage  of  Polycrates ;  and 
after  the  death  of  this  despot  he  went  to  Athens  at  the  invitation 
of  IIi])parchus.  The  universal  tradition  of  antiquity  represents 
Anacreon  as  a  consummate  voluptuary,  and  his  jtocms  prove  the 
truth  of  the  tradition.  His  death  was  worthy  of  his  life,  if  we 
may  believe  the  account  that  lie  was  choked  by  a  grape-stone. 

(SiMONiDES,  of  the  island  of  Ceos,  was  born  u.c.  55G,  and  reach- 
ed a  great  age.  lie  lived  many  years  at  Athens,  both  at  the  court 
of  Ilipparchus,  together  with  Anacreon,  and  subsequently  under 
the  democracy  during  the  Persian  wars.  The  struggles  of  Greece 
for  her  independence  furnished  him  Avith  a  noble  subject  for  his 
muse.  He  carried  away  the  ])rize  from  ^schylus  with  an  elegy 
upon  the  warriors  who  had  fallen  at  the  battle  of  Marathon.  Sub- 
sequently we  find  him  celebrating  the  heroes  of  ThermopA-la,  Ar- 
temisium,  Salamis,  and  Plativa.  He  was  uj)wards  of  SO  Avhen  his 
long  poetical  career  at  Athens  was  closed  Avith  the  Auctory  Avhicli 
he  gained  Avith  the  dithyrambic  chorus  in  B.C.  477,  making  the 
5Gth  prize  that  he  had  carried  off.  Shortly  after  this  event  he 
repaired  to  Syracuse  at  the  invitation  of  Hiero.  Here  he  spent 
tlie  remaining  ten  years  of  his  life,  not  only  entertaining  Hiero 
witli  his  poetry,  but  instructing  him  by  his  Avisdom  ;  for  Simoni- 
des  Avas  a  philosopher  as  Avell  as  a  poet,  and  is  reckoned  amongst 
the  sojilii.sts. 

PixDAK,  though  the  contemporary  of  Simonides,  Avas  considera- 
bly his  junior.  He  Avas  born  either  at,  or  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Thebes  inBa^otia,  about 
the  year  522  n.c.  Later  Avritcrs  tell  us  that 
his  future  glory  as  a  poet  Avas  miraculously 
foreshadowed  by  a  swarm  of  bees  which  rested 
tipon  his  lips  Avliile  he  Avas  asleep,  and  that 
this  miracle  first  led  him  to  compose  poetry. 
He  commenced  his  professional  career  at  an 
early  ago,  and  soon  acquired  so  great  a  repu- 
tation, that  lie  Avas  em])loyed  by  various  states 
and  princes  of  the  Hellenic  race  to  conqiose 
choral  songs.  He  Avas  courted  especially  by 
Alexander,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  by  Hiero, 
despot  of  Syracuse.  The  praises  which  he  bestowed  ujjou  Alex- 
ander are  said  to  have  been  the  chief  reixson  Avhich  led  his  de- 
scendant, Alexander  the  Great,  to  spare  the  house  of  the  poet 


riuJiir. 


Chap.  XXII.  PINDAR— HERODOTUS.  221 

when  he  destroyed  the  rest  of  Thebes.  The  estimation  in  which 
Pindar  was  held  is  also  shown  by  the  honours  conferred  upon  him 
by  the  free  states  of  Greece.  Although  a  Theban,  he  was  always 
a  great  favourite  with  the  Athenians,  whom  he  frequently  praised 
in  his  poems,  and  who  testified  their  gratitude  by  making  him 
their  public  guest,  and  by  giving  him  10,000  drachmas.  The  only 
poems  of  Pindar  which  have  come  down  to  us  entire  are  his  Epi- 
nicia  or  triumphal  odes,  composed  in  commemoration  of  victories 
gained  in  the  great  public  games.  But  these  were  only  a  small 
portion  of  his  works.  He  also  wrote  hymns,  paeans,  dithyrambs, 
odes  for  processions,  songs  of  maidens,  mimic  dancing-songs,  drink- 
ing-songs, dirges,  and  encomia,  or  panegyrics  on  jirinces. 

The  Greeks  had  arrived  at  a  high  pitch  of  civilization  beforo 
they  can  be  said  to  have  possessed  a  History.  The 
first  essays  in  literary  prose  cannot  be  placed  earlier 
than  the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian  era ; 
but  the  first  writer  who  desei*ves  the  name  of  an 
historian  is  Hekodotcs,  hence  called  the  Father 
of  History.  Herodotus  Avas  born  in  the  Dorian 
colony  of  Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  in  the  year  484 
B.C.,  and  accordingly  about  the  time  of  the  Persian 
expeditions  into  Greece.  He  resided  some  years 
in  Samos,  and  also  undertook  extensive  travels,  of 
which  he  speaks  in  his  work.  There  was  scarcely 
a  town  in  Greece  or  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor 
with  which  he  was  not  acquainted;  he  had  ex-  Herodotus, 
plored  Thrace  and  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea ;  in  Egypt  he  had 
penetrated  as  fiir  south  as  Elephantine ;  and  in  Asia  he  had  visited 
the  cities  of  Babylon,  Ecbatana,  and  Susa.  The  latter  part  of  his 
life  was  spent  at  Thurii,  a  colony  founded  by  the  Athenians  in 
Italy  in  B.C.  443.  According  to  a  well-known  story  in  Lucian, 
Herodotus,  when  he  had  completed  his  work,  recited  it  publicly  at 
the  great  Olympic  festival,  as  the  best  means  of  procuring  for  it 
that  celebrity  to  which  he  felt  that  it  was  entitled.  The  effect  is 
described  as  immediate  and  complete.  The  delighted  audience 
at  once  assigned  the  names  of  the  nine  Muses  to  the  nine  books 
into  which  it  is  divided.  A  still  later  author  (Suidas)  adds,  that 
Thucydides,  then  a  boy,  was  present  at  the  festival  with  his  father 
Olorus,  and  was  so  aiFected  by  the  recital  as  to  shed  tears ;  upon 
which  Herodotus  congratulated  Olorus  on  having  a  son  who  pos- 
sessed so  early  such  a  zeal  for  knowledge.  But  there  are  many 
objections  to  the  probability  of  these  tales. 

Herodotus  interwove  into  his  history  all  the  varied  and  exten- 
sive knowledge  acquired  in  his  travels,  and  by  his  own  personal 


228  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXII. 

researches.  But  tlic  real  subject  of  tlic  work  is  the  conflict  be- 
tween the  Greek  race,  in  the  widest  sense  of  tlie  term,  and  in- 
cluding the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  witli  the  Asiatics.  Thus  the 
liistorian  had  a  vast  e])ic  subject  presented  to  liira,  whicli  was 
brought  to  a  natural  and  glorious  termination  by  the  defeat  of  the 
Tcrsians  in  their  attenii)ts  u])on  Greece.  The  work  concludes 
with  the  reduction  of  Scstos  by  the  Athenians,  u.c.  478.  Herod- 
otus wrote  in  the  Ionic  dialect,  and  his  style  is  marked  by  an 
case  and  simplicity  Avhich  lend  it  an  indescribable  charm. 

TiiucYDiDES,  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  historians,  was  an  Athe- 
nian, and  was  born  in  the  year  471  B.C.  His  fam- 
ily was  connected  with  that  of  JMiltiades  and 
Cimon.  He  possessed  gold  mines  in  Thrace, 
and  enjoyed  great  influence  in  that  country. 
He  commanded  an  Athenian  squadron  of  seven 
ships  at  Thasos,  in  424  u.c,  at  the  time  when 
Brasidas  was  besieging  Amphipolis ;  and  having 
■*f-fy^ — ^1  failed  to  relieve  that  city  in  time,  lie  went  into 
\  a  voluntary  exile,  in   order  probably  to  avoid 

j  the  punisliment  of  death.      He  appears  to  have 


I  s])cnt  20  veavs  in  banishment,  principally  in  the 
J  Pel 


goYKY^iAHc  (  Peloponnesus,  or  in  places  under  the  dominion 
Tliucydiucj.  or  influence  of  Sparta.  He  perhaps  returned  to 
Athens  in  u.c.  403,  the  date  of  its  liberation  by  Thrasybulus.  Ac- 
cording to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  antiquity,  he  met  with  a 
violent  end,  and  it  seems  probable  that  he  was  assiissinatcd  at 
Athens,  since  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  his  tomb  existed  there. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponncsian  war  he  had  designed  to 
write  its  history,  and  ho  employed  himself  in  collecting  material.^ 
for  that  purpose  during  its  continuance;  but  it  is  most  likely  tliat 
the  work  was  not  actually  composed  till  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
war,  and  that  he  was  engaged  upon  it  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
The  first  book  of  his  History  is  introductory,  and  contains  a  ra]tid 
sketch  of  Grecian  history  from  the  remotest  times  to  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war.  The  remaining  seven  books  are  filled  with  tlie 
details  of  the  war,  related  according  to  the  division  into  summers 
and  winters,  into  which  all  canqiaigns  naturally  fall ;  and  the  work 
breaks  offabruptly  in  the  middle  of  tlie  2Ist  year  of  the  war(u.c. 
411).  The  materials  of  Tliucydidcs  were  collected  with  the  most 
s(rui)u/ous  care  ;  the  events  are  related  with  the  strictest  impar- 
tiality ;  and  the  work  ])robably  offers  a  more  exact  account  of  a  long 
and  eventful  period  than  any  other  contemjiorary  history,  whether 
ancient  or  modfirn,  of  an  ('(jually  long  and  important  ana.  'J'lie 
^lylc  of  Tliucydidcs  is  U^icf  and  sententious,  and  whether  in  moral 


Chap.  XXII.      THUCYDIDES— XENOPHON.  229 

or  political  reasoning,  or  in  description,  gains  wonderful  force  from 
its  condensation.  But  this  characteristic  is  sometimes  carried  to 
a  faulty  extent,  so  as  to  render  his  style  harsli,  and  liis  meaning 
obscure. 

Xenophox,  the  son  of  Gryllus,  was  also  an  Athenian,  and  was 
probably  born  about  B.C.  444.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  who 
saved  his  life  at  the  battle  of  Delium  (b.c.  424).  His  accompany- 
ing Cyrus  the  younger  in  his  expedition  against  his  brother  Arta- 
xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  formed  a  striking  episode  in  his  life,  and  has 
been  recorded  by  himself  in  his  Anabasis.  He  seems  to  have  been 
still  in  Asia  at  the  time  of  the  death  of  Socrates  in  399  b.c,  and 
was  probably  banished  from  Athens  soon  after  that  period,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  close  connexion  vrith  the  Lacedaemonians.  lie 
accompanied  Agesilaus,  the  Spartan  king,  on  the  return  of  the 
latter  from  Asia  to  Greece  ;  and  he  fought  along  with  the  Lace- 
diximonians  against  his  own  countr}"men  at  the  battle  of  Coronea 
in  odl  B.C.  After  this  battle  he  went  with  Agesilaus  to  Sparta, 
and  soon  afterwards  settled  at  Scillus  in  Elis,  near  Olympia.  He 
is  said  to  have  lived  to  more  than  90  years  of  age,  and  he  men- 
tions an  event  which  occurred  as  late  as  357  b.c. 

Probably  all  the  works  of  Xenophon  are  still  extant.  The 
Anabasis  is  the  work  on  which  his  fame  as  a  historian  chiefly 
rests.  It  is  written  in  a  simple  and  agreeable  style,  and  conveys 
much  curious  and  striking  information.  The  Ilellenica  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  history  of  Thucydides,  and  comprehends  in  seven 
books  a  space  of  about  48  years  ;  namely,  from  the  time  when 
Thucydides  breaks  off,  b.c.  411,  to  the  battle  of  Mantinea  in  3G2. 
The  subject  is  treated  in  a  very  dry  and  uninteresting  style ;  and 
his  evident  partiality  to  Sparta,  and  dislike  of  Athens,  have  fre- 
quently warped  his  judgment,  and  must  cause  his  statements  to  be 
received  with  some  suspicion.  The  Cyropadia,  one  of  the  most 
pleasing  and  popular  of  his  works,  professes  to  be  a  histor}^  of 
Cyrus,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  but  is,  in  reality,  a 
kind  of  political  romance,  and  possesses  no  authority  whatever  as 
an  historical  work.  The  design  of  the  author  seems  to  have  been 
to  draw  a  picture  of  a  perfect  state  ;  and  though  the  scene  is  laid 
in  Persia,  the  materials  of  the  work  are  derived  from  his  own 
philosophical  notions  and  the  usages  of  Sparta,  engrafted  on  tho 
popularly  current  stories  respecting  Cyrus.  Xenophon  displays  in 
this  work  his  dislike  of  democratic  institutions  like  those  of  Athens, 
and  his  preference  for  an  aristocracy,  or  even  a  monarchy.  Xeno- 
phon v/as  also  the  author  of  several  minor  works  ;  but  the  only 
other  treatise  which  we  need  mention  is  the  Memorabilia  of  Socra- 
tes, in  four  books,  intended  as  a  defence  of  his  master  against  tho 


230  IIISTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXII. 

charges  which  occasioned  his  death,  and  which  undoubtedly  con- 
tains a  genuine  picture  of  Socrates  and  his  philosophy.  The  gen- 
ius of  Xenophon  was  not  of  the  highest  order ;  it  was  practical 
rather  than  speculative ;  but  he  is  distinguished  for  his  good  sense, 
his  moderate  views,  his  humane  temper,  and  his  earnest  piety. 

The  Drama  pre-eminently  distinguished  Athenian  literature. 
The  democracy  demanded  a  literature  of  a  popular  kind,  the  -vi- 
vacity of  the  people  a  literature  that  made  a  lively  impression  ;  and 
both  these  conditions  were  fulfilled  by  the  drama.  But,  though 
brought  to  perfection  among  the  Athenians,  tragedy  and  comedy, 
in  their  rude  and  early  origin,  were  Dorian  inventions.  Both 
arose  out  of  the  worship  of  Dionysus.  There  was  at  first  but  lit- 
tle distinction  between  tlicsc  two  species  of  the  drama,  except  that 
comedy  belonged  more  to  the  rural  celebration  of  the  Dionysiac 
festivals,  and  tragedy  to  that  in  cities.  The  name  of  trafjcdi/  was 
far  from  signifying  any  thing  mournful,  being  derived  from  the 
goat-like  appearance  of  those  who,  disguised  as  Satyrs,  performed 
the  old  Dionysiac  songs  and  dances.  In  like  manner,  comedij  was 
called  after  the  song  of  the  band  of  revellers  who  celebrated  the 
vintage  festivals  of  Dionysus,  and  vented  the  mde  merriment  in- 
spired by  the  occasion  in  jibes  and  extempore  witticisms  levelled 
at  the  spectators.  Tragedy,  in  its  more  ]ierfcct  form,  was  the  off- 
spring of  the  dithyrambic  odes  with  which  that  worship  was  cele- 
brated. These  were  not  always  of  a  joyous  cast.  Some  of  them 
expressed  the  sufferings  of  Dionysus ;  and  it  was  from  this  more 
mournful  species  of  dithyramb  that  tragedy,  properly  so  called, 
arose.  The  dithyrambic  odes  formed  a  kind  of  lyrical  tragedy, 
and  Averc  sung  by  a  chorus  of  fifty  men,  dancing  round  the  altar 
of  Dionysus.  Tiie  improvements  in  the  dithyramb  were  introduced 
by  Arion  at  Corinth ;  and  it  was  chiefly  among  the  Dorian  states 
of  the  Peloponnesus  that  these  choral  dithyrambic  songs  prevailed. 
Hence,  even  in  Attic  tragedy,  the  chorus,  Avhich  was  the  foundation 
of  the  drama,  Avas  written  in  the  Doric  dialect,  thus  clearly  betray- 
ing the  source  from  which  the  Athenians  derived  it. 

In  Attica  an  important  alteration  was  made  in  the  old  tragedy 
in  the  time  of  Pisistratus,  in  consequence  of  which  it  obtained  a 
new  and  dramatic  cliaractcr.  This  innoA'ation  is  ascribed  to  Tiiks- 
ris,  a  native  of  the  Attic  village  of  Icaria,  n.c.  535.  It  consisted 
in  the  introduction  of  an  actor  for  the  purpose  of  giving  rest  to  the 
chorus.  Thcspis  Avas  succeeded  by  Chocrilus  and  Phrynichus,  the 
latter  of  Avhom  gained  his  first  prize  in  the  dramatic  contests  in 
511  n.c.  The  Dorian  Pratinas,  a  native  of  I'hlins,  but  Avho  ex- 
hibited his  tragedies  at  Alliens,  introduced  an  iuiprovcmcnt  in 
tragedy  by  separating  the  Satyric  from  the  tnigic  drair"      A? 


Chap.  XXII.  ^SCHYLUS.  231 

neither  the  popular  taste  nor  the  ancient  religious  associations 
connected  with  the  festivals  of  Dionysns  would  have  permitted  the 
chorus  of  Satyrs  to  be  entirely  banished  from  the  tragic  representa- 
tions, Pratinas  avoided  this  by  the  invention  of  what  is  called  the 
Satyric  drama ;  that  is,  a  species  of  play  in  which  the  ordinary 
subjects  of  tragedy  were  treated  in  a  lively  and  farcical  manner, 
and  in  which  the  chorus  consisted  of  a  band  of  Satyrs  in  appropri^ 
ate  dresses  and  masks.  After  this  period  it  became  customary  ta 
exhibit  dramas  in  tetralogies,  or  sets  of  four;  namely,  a  tragio 
trilogy,  or  series  of  three  tragedies,  followed  by  a  Satyric  play. 
These  were  often  on  connected  subjects ;  and  the  Satyric  drama 
at  the  end  served  like  a  merry  after-piece  to  relieve  the  minds  of 
the  spectators. 

The  subjects  of  Greek  tragedy  were  taken,  with  few  exceptions,, 
from  the  national  mythology.  Hence  the  plot  and  story  were  of 
necessity  known  to  the  spectators,  a  circumstance  wliich  strongly 
distinguishes  the  ancient  tragedy  from  the  modern.  It  must  also 
be  recollected  that  tho  representation  of  tragedies  did  not  take 
place  every  day,  but  only  after  certain  fixed  intervals,  at  the  festi- 
vals of  Dionysus,  of  which  they  formed  one  of  the  greatest  attrac- 
tions. During  the  whole  day  the  Athenian  public  sat  in  the  thea- 
tre  witnessing  tragedy  after  tragedy ;  and  a  prize  was  awarded  by 
judges  appointed  for  the  purpose  to  the  poet  who  produced  the 
best  set  of  dramas. 

Such  was  the  Attic  tragedy  when  it  came  into  the  hands  of -iEs- 
CHYLUS,  who,  from  the  great  improvements  which  he  introduced, 
was  regarded  by  the  Athenians  as  its  father  or  founder,  just  as 
Homer  was  of  Epic  poetry,  and  Herodotus  of  Histoiy.  iEschylus 
was  born  at  Eleusis  in  Attica  in  B.C.  525,  and  was  thus  contem- 
porary with  Simonides  and  Pindar.  He  fought  with  his  brother 
Cynajgirus  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  and  also  at  those  of  Arte- 
misium,  Salamis,  and  Platrea.  In  b.c.  484  he  gained  his  first  tragic 
prize.  In  4G8  he  was  defeated  in  a  tragic  contest  by  his  younger 
rival  Sophocles.  He  died  at  Gela,  in  Sicily,  in  45G,  in  the  G9th 
year  of  his  age.  It  is  unanimously  related  that  an  eagle,  mistak- 
ing the  poet's  bald  head  for  a  stone,  let  a  tortoise  fall  upon  it  in  or- 
dor  to  break  the  shell,  thus  fulfilling  an  oracle  predicting  that  he 
was  to  die  by  a  blow  from  heaven.  The  improvements  introduced 
into  tragedy  by  -^schylus  concerned  both  its  form  and  composi- 
tion, and  its  manner  of  representation.  In  the  former  his  princi- 
I)al  innovation  was  the  introduction  of  a  second  actor;  whence 
arose  the  dialogue,  properly  so  called,  and  the  limitation  of  tho 
choral  parts,  which  now  became  subsidiary.  His  improvements 
in  the  manner  of  representing  tragedy  consisted  in  the  introduc- 


233 


insTOKY  OF  GllEECE. 


Chap.  XXIL 


tion  of  painted  scenes,  drawn  according  to  the  mles  of  perspective, 
lie  furnished  the  actors  with  more  appropriate  and  more  magnili- 
cent  dresses,  invented  for  them  more  various  and  expressive  masks, 
and  raised  their  stature  to  the  hei'oic  size  by  providing  them  with 
thick-soled  cothurni  or  buskins.  iEschyhis  excels  in  represent- 
ing the  superliuman,  in  depicting  demigods  and  heroes,  and  in 
tracing  tlie  irresistible  march  of  fate.  Ilis  style  resembles  the 
ideas  which  it  clothes ;  it  is  bold,  sublime,  and  full  of  gorgeous 
imagery,  but  sometimes  borders  on  the  turgid. 

Sophocles,  the  ypunger  rival  and  immediate  successor  of  JEs- 

chylus  in  the  tragic  art,  was  born  at  Co- 
lonus,  a  village  about  a  mile  from  Athens, 
in  i;.c.  4U5.  We  have  already  adverted 
to  his  wresting  the  tragic  prize  from  iEs- 
chylus  in  4G8,  from  which  time  he  seems 
to  have  retained  the  almost  undisjtutcd 
l)osscssion  of  the  Athenian  stage,  nntil  a 
young  but  formidable  rival  arose  in  the 
person  of  Euripides.  The  close  of  liis 
life  was  troubled  witli  family  dissensions, 
lophon,  his  son  by  an  Athenian  wife,  and 
J,    .     ,  ,  therefore  his  legitimate  heir,  was  jealous 

of  the  affection  manifested  bv  his  father 
for  his  grandson  Sophocles,  the  offspring  of  another  son,  Ariston, 
whom  he  had  had  by  a  Sicyonian  woman.  Eearing  lest  his  father 
sliould  bestow  a  great  part  of  Iiis  i)roi)erty  upon  his  favourite,  lo- 
plion  summoned  him  before  the  Phratores,  or  tribesmen,  on  the 
ground  tliat  his  mind  was  affected.  The  old  man's  only  rci)ly 
was,  "  If  I  am  Sophocles  I  am  not  beside  myself;  and  if  I  am  be- 
side myself  I  am  not  Sophocles."  Tlien  taking  up  liis  Oulipiis  at 
Colunvs,  which  he  had  lately  written,  but  had  not  yet  brouglit  out, 
he  read  from  it  a  beautiful  passage,  with  wliich  the  judges  were  so 
Btruck  that  they  at  once  dismissed  the  case,  lie  died  shortly  after- 
wards, in  B.C.  40G,  in  his  90th  year.  As  a  poet  Sophocles  is  uni- 
versally allowed  to  have  brought  the  drama  to  the  greatest  jjcrfec- 
tion  of  which  it  is  susceptible.  His  plays  stand  in  the  just  medium 
between  tlic  sublime  but  unregulated  flights  of -/Eschylus,  and  the 
too  familiar  scenes  and  rhetorical  declamations  of  Euripides.  His 
plots  are  worked  up  with  more  skill  and  care  than  the  plots  of  cither 
of  his  great  rivals.  Sophocles  added  the  last  imi)rovemcnt  to  the 
form  of  the  dranui  by  tlie  introduction  of  u  third  actor;  a  change 
which  greatly  enlarged  the  scope  of  the  action.  The  imiirovement 
was  so  obvious  that  it  was  adojjted  by  -/Eschylus  in  his  later  i)lays ; 
but  the  number  of  three  actors  seems  to  have  been  seldom  or  ncv 
er  exceeded. 


Chap.  XXIT.     EURIPIDES— AKISTOPIIANES.  233 

Euripides  was  born  in  the  island  of  Salamis,  in  p.c.  480,  his 
I)arent3  having  been  among  those  who  fled  tliither 
at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Attica  by  Xerxes. 
He  studied  rhetoric  under  Prodicus,  and  physics 
under  Anaxagoras,  and  he  also  lived  on  intimate 
terms  with  Socrates.  In  44 1  he  gained  his  first 
prize,  and  he  continued  to  exhibit  plays  until 
408,  tlie  date  of  his  Orestes.  Soon  after  this  he 
repaired  to  the  court  of  Macedonia,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  King  Archelaiis,  where  he  died  two  years 
afterwards  at  the  age  of  74  (b.c.  406).  Common 
report  relates  that  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  the  unpi 

king's  dogs,  which,  according  to  some  accounts,  were  set  u])on  him 
by  two  rival  poets  out  of  envy.  In  treating  his  characters  and 
subjects  Euripides  often  arbitrarily  departed  from  the  received 
1  ^gends,  and  diminished  the  dignity  of  tragedy  by  depriving  it  of 
its  ideal  character,  and  by  bringing  it  down  to  the  level  of  eveiy- 
day  life.  His  dialogue  was  garrulous  and  colloquial,  wanting  in 
heroic  dignity,  and  frequently  frigid  through  misplaced  philosoph- 
ical disquisitions.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  faults  Euripides  has 
many  beauties,  and  is  particularly  remarkable  for  pathos,  so  that 
Aristotle  calls  him  "  the  most  tragic  of  poets." 

Comedy  received  its  full  development  at  Athens  from  Cratinus, 
who  lived  in  the  age  of  Pericles.  Cratinus,  and  his  younger  con- 
temporaries, Enpolis  and  Aristophanes,  were  the  three  great  poets 
of  what  is  called  the  Old  Attic  Comedy.  The  comedies  of  Cratinus 
and  Eupolis  are  lost ;  but  of  Aristophanes,  who  was  the  greatest 
of  the  three,  we  have  eleven  dramas  extant.  Aristophanes  was 
born  about  444  b.c.  Of  his  private  life  we  know  positively  noth- 
ing. He  exhibited  his  first  comedy  in  427,  and  from  that  time 
till  near  his  death,  which  probably  happened  about  380,  he  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  Attic  stage.  The  Old  Attic  Comedy 
was  a  powerful  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  opinion ;  and  most 
of  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes  turned  either  upon  political  oc- 
currences, or  upon  some  subject  which  excited  the  interest  of  the 
Athenian  public.  Their  chief  object  was  to  excite  laughter  by  the 
boldest  and  most  ludicrous  caricature,  and,  provided  tliat  end  was 
attained,  the  poet  seems  to  have  cared  but  little  about  the  justice 
of  the  picture.  Towards  the  end  of  the  career  of  Aristophanes 
the  uni'cstricted  license  and  libellous  personality  of  comedy  began 
gradually  to  disappear.  The  chorus  was  first  curtailed  and  then 
entirely  suppressed,  and  thus  made  way  for  what  is  called  the 
Middle  Comedy,  which  had  no  chorus  at  all.  The  latter  still  con- 
tinued to  be  in  some  degree  political ;  but  persons  were  no  longer 


234 


IIISTOllY  OF  GREECE. 


Chap.  XXII. 


introduced  upon  the  stage  iinder  their  real  names,  and  the  office 
of  the  chorus  -was  very  much  curtailed.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  con- 
necting liuk  between  the  Old  Comedy  and  the  New,  or  tlie  Com- 
edy of  Manners.  The  Neiu  Comedy  arose  after  Athens  liad  become 
subject  to  the  Macedonians.  Politics  were  now  excluded  from  the 
stage,  and  the  materials  of  the  dramatic  poet  were  derived  entirely 
from  the  fictitious  adventures  of  persons  in  pri^'ate  life.  The  two 
most  distinguished  writers  of  this  scliool  were  Piiilkmon  and 
Mi:NANr)p:i{.  Philemon  was  ])robably  l)orn  about  the  year  3C(? 
15. c,  and  was  cither  a  Cilician  or  Syracusan,  but  came  at  an  earl^ 

age  to  Athens.  He  is  considered  as  the 
founder  of  the  New  Comedy,  which  was 
soon  afterwards  brought  to  perfection 
by  his  younger  contemporary  ^Icnan- 
der.  The  latter  was  an  Athenian,  and 
was  born  in  B.C.  342.  He  was  drown- 
ed at  the  age  of  52,  whilst  swimming 
in  the  harbour  of  Piraeus.  He  wrote 
upwards  of  100  comedies,  of  which  only 
fragments  remain  ;  and  the  unanimous 
jiraise  of  posterity  awakens  our  regret 
for  the  loss  of  one  of  the  most  elegant 
writers  of  antiquity.  The  comedies, 
indeed,  of  Plautus  and  Terence  may 
give  us  a  general  notion  of  the  New 
Comedy  of  the  Greeks,  from  which  they  were  confessedly  drawn  ; 
but  there  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the  works  even  of  the 
latter  Poman  writer  fell  far  short  of  tlie  Avit  and  elegance  of 
Menander. 

The  latter  days  of  literary  Athens  were  chiefly  distinguished  by 
the  genius  of  her  Orators  anH  PhilosopJicrs.  There  were  ten  Attic 
orators,  Avhoso  Avorks  were  collected  by  the  Greek  grammarians, 
and  many  of  wliose  orations  have  come  down  to  us.  Their  names 
are  Anti])lion,  Andocidcs,  Lysias,  Isocrates,  Isa^us,  iEschines,  Ly- 
curgus,  Demosthenes,  Ilyperides,  and  Dinarchus.  ANTinioN,  the 
earliest  of  the  ten,  was  born  B.C.  480.  He  opened  a  school  of  rhet- 
oric, and  numbered  among  his  pupils  the  historian  Thucydides. 
Antijjhon  Avas  ])ut  to  death  in  411  n.c.  for  the  part  which  he  took 
in  establishing  tlic  oligarcliy  of  the  Four  Hundred. 

Andocides,  who  was  concerned  with  Alcibiades  in  the  afiair 
of  tlie  Ilerma;,  Avas  born  at  Athens  in  B.C.  4G7,  and  died  probably 
about  301. 

Lystas,  also  born  at  Athens  in  458,  Avas  much  superior  to  Ando- 
cidcs as  au  orator,  but  being  a  vietic^  or  resident  alien,  ho  Avas  not 


Mcuaudcr. 


Chap.  XXII.    iESCIIINES— DEMOSTHENES.  235 

allowed  to  speak  in  the  assemblies  or  courts  of  justice,  and  there- 
fore wrote  orations  for  others  to  deliver. 

IsocKATES  was  boru  in  43G,  After  receiA-ing  the  instructiona 
of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  sophists  of  the  day,  he  became  him- 
self a  speech-writer  and  professor  of  rhetoric ;  his  weakly  consti- 
tution and  natural  timidity  preventing  him  from  taking  a  part  in 
public  life.  He  made  away  with  him.«elf  in  338,  after  the  fatal 
battle  of  Chffironea,  in  despair,  it  is  siid,  of  liis  country's  fato. 
He  took  great  pains  with  his  compositions,  and  is  reported  to  have 
spent  ten,  or,  according  to  others,  fifteen  years  over  his  Panegyric 
oration. 

IsiEUS  flourished  between  the  end  of  the  Peloponncsian  war  and 
the  accession  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  He  opened  a  school  of 
rlietoric  at  Athens,  and  is  said  to  have  numbered  Demosthenes 
among  his  pupils.  The  orations  of  Isaus  were  exclusively  ju- 
dicial, and  the  whole  of  the  eleven  which  have  come  down  to  us 
turn  on  the  subject  of  inheritances. 

iEscniNES  Avas  born  in  the  year  389,  and  he  was  at  first  a 
violent  anti-Macedonian ;  but  after  his  embassy  along  with  De- 
mosthenes and  others  to  Philip's  court,  he  was  the  constant  ad- 
vocate of  peace.  Demosthenes  and  ^schines  now  became  the 
leading  speakers  on  their  respective  sides,  and  the  heat  of  political 
animosity  soon  degenerated  into  personal  hatred.  In  343  Demos- 
thenes charged  ^schines  with  having  received  bribes  from  Philip 
during  a  second  embassy  ;  and  the  speech  in  which  he  brought  for- 
ward this  accusation  was  answered  in  another  by  ^schines.  The 
result  of  this  charge  is  unknown,  but  it  seems  to  have  detracted 
from  the  popularity  of  iEschines.  We  have  already  adverted  to 
his  impeachment  of  Ctesiphon,  and  the  celebrated  reply  of  De- 
mosthenes in  his  speech  de  Corona  (p.  202).  After  the  banish- 
ment of  iEschines  on  this  occasion  (b.c.  330),  he  employed  him- 
self in  teaching  rhetoric  at  llhodes.  He  died  in  Sambos  in  314. 
As  an  orator  he  was  second  onlv  to  Demosthenes. 

Of  the  life  of  his  great  rival,  Demosthenes,  we  have  already 
given  some  account  (p.  178).  The  verdict  of  his  contemporaries, 
ratified  by  posterity,  has  pronounced  Demosthenes  the  greatest 
orator  that  ever  lived.  The  principal  element  of  his  success  must 
be  traced  in  his  purity  of  purpose,  which  gave  to  his  ai'guments  all 
the  force  of  conscientious  conviction.  The  effect  of  his  speeches 
was  still  further  heightened  by  a  wonderful  and  almost  magic 
force  of  diction.  The  grace  and  vivacity  of  his  delivery  are  at- 
tested by  the  well-known  anecdote  of  JEschines,  when  he  read  at 
Khodes  his  speech  against  Ctesiphon.  His  audience  having  ex- 
pressed their  surprise  that  he  should  have  been  doAio.ted  after  such 


23G  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  Chap.  XXH. 

an  oration:  "You  would  cease  to  wonder,"  he  remarked,  **if  ycu 
had  heard  Demosthenes," 

The  remaining  three  Attic  orators,  viz.,  Lycurgus,  HvrERiDES, 
and  DiNARCiius,  were  contemporaries  of  Demosthenes.  Lycurgus 
and  Uyperides  both  belonged  to  the  anti-Macedonian  party,  and 
were  warm  supporters  of  the  policy  of  Demosthenes.  Dinarchus, 
who  is  the  least  important  of  the  Attic  orators,  sun-ivcd  Demos- 
thenes, and  Vv'as  a  friend  of  Demetrius  Phalereus. 

The  history  of  Greek  J^hilosoj)Iii/,  like  that  of  Greek  poetry  and 
histoiy,  began  in  Asia  JNIinor.  The  earliest  philosopher  of  dis- 
tinction was  TiiALES  of  ]\Iilctus,  wlio  was  born  about  n.c.  G40,  and 
died  in  550,  at  the  age  of  00.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Jotiic 
school  of  philosophy,  and  to  him  were  traced  the  first  beginnings 
of  geometry  and  astronomy.  The  main  doctrine  of  his  philosoj)li- 
ical  sj'stem  was,  that  water,  or  fluid  substance,  was  the  single  orig- 
inal clement  from  which  everything  came  and  into  Avhich  every- 
thing returned.  Axaxlmakdkr,  the  successor  of  Thalcs  in  the 
Ionic  school,  lived  from  B.C.  GIO  to  547.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  knowledge  of  astronomy  and  gcograjdiy,  and  is  said  to  liavo 
been  the  first  to  introduce  the  use  of  the  sun-dial  into  Greece. 
Anaximknes,  tlic  third  in  the  series  of  the  Ionian  philosophers, 
lived  a  little  later  than  Anaximander.  He  endeavoured,  like 
Thales,  to  derive  the  origin  of  all  material  things  from  a  single 
element ;  and,  according  to  his  theory,  air  was  the  source  of  life. 

A  new  path  was  struck  out  by  Anaxagoras  of  Clazomena;,  the 
most  illustrious  of  the  Ionic  philosophers.  He  came  to  Athens  in 
480  iJ.c.,  where  he  continued  to  teach  for  thirty  years,  numbering 
among  his  hearers  Pericles,  Socrates,  and  Euripides.  He  aban- 
doned the  system  of  his  predecessors,  and,  instead  of  regarding 
some  elementary  form  of  matter  as  the  origin  cf  all  tilings,  he 
conceived  a  su})rcme  mind  or  intelligence,  distinct  from  the  visi- 
ble world,  to  have  imparted  form  and  order  tolhe  chaos  of  nature. 
Tlicse  innovations  aftbrded  the  Athenians  a  pretext  for  indicting 
Anaxagoras  of  impiety,  though  it  is  probable  that  his  connexion 
with  Pericles  was  tlie  real  cause  of  that  proceeding  (see  p.  SO).  It 
was  only  througli  the  inlluencc  and  eh)(]uencc  of  I'cricles  that  he 
was  not  i)ut  to  death ;  but  he  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  fire 
talents  and  quit  Athens.  The  philosojjher  retired  to  Larapsacus, 
whore  he  died  at  the  age  of  72. 

The  scf'ond  sclu)ol  of  Greek  ])liilosoi)liy  was  tlie  FJrat'ic,  which 
derived  its  name  from  Elea  or  Velia,  a  Greek  colony  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Southern  Italy.  It  was  founded  by  Xknophanes  of 
Colojjhon,  who  fled  to  Elea  on  the  conquest  of  his  native  land  by 
tlic  IVrsiana.     He  conceived  the  whole  of  nature  to  bo  God. 


Chap.  XXII.  PYTHAGORAS— PLATO.  2J) 

The  tliird  scliool  of  jjliilosopliy  was  the  Pijtliagorean,  founded 
by  PrniAGORAS.  He  was  a  imtive  of  Samos,  and  was  born  about 
15. c.  580.  His  father  was  an  opulent  merchant,  and  Pythagoras 
himself  travelled  extensively  in  the  East.  He  believed  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls  ;  and  later  writers  relate  that  Pythagoras 
asseited  that  his  own  soul  had  formerly  dwelt  in  the  body  of  the 
Trojan  Euphorbus,  the  son  of  Panthous,  who  v.-as  slain  by  Mene- 
laus,  and  that  in  proof  of  his  assertion  he  took  down,  at  first  sight, 
the  shield  of  Euphorbus  from  the  temple  of  Hera  (Juno)  at  Argos, 
where  it  had  been  dedicated  by  Menelaus.  Pythagoras  was  dis- 
tinguished by  his  knowledge  of  geometry  and  arithmetic  ;  and  it 
was  pi-obably  from  his  teaching  that  the  Pythagoreans  were  led  to 
regard  numbers  in  some  mysterious  manner  as  the  basis  and  es- 
sence of  all  things.  He  was,  however,  more  of  the  religious  teach- 
er than  of  the  philosopher ;  and  he  looked  upon  himself  as  a  being 
destined  by  the  gods  to  reveal  to  his  disciples  a  new  and  a  purer 
mode  of  life.  He  founded  at  Crotou  in.  Italy  a  kind  of  religious 
brotherhood,  the  members  of  which  were  bound  together  by  pecul- 
iar rites  and  observances.  Eveiything  done  and  taught  in  the 
fraternity  was  kept  a  profound  secret  from  all  without  the  pale. 
It  appears  that  the  members  had  some  private  signs,  like  Free- 
masons, by  which  they  could  recognize  each  other,  even  if  they 
had  never  met  before.  His  doctrines  spread  rapidly  over  Magna 
Graacia,  and  clubs  of  a  similar  character  were  established  at  Sy- 
baris,  Metapontum,  Tarentum,  and  other  cities. 

At  Athens  a  new  direction  was  giveu  to  the  study  of  philosophy 
by  Socrates,  of  whom  an  account  has  been  already  given  (p.  138- 
1-tO).  To  his  teaching  either  directly  or  indirectly  may  be  traced 
the  origin  of  the  four  principal  Grecian  schools :  the  Academi- 
cians, established  by  Plato  ;  the  Peripatetics,  founded  by  his  pupil 
Aristotle  ;  the  Epicureans,  so  named  from  their  master  Epicurus ; 
and  the  Stoics,  founded  by  Zeno. 

Plato  was  born  at  Athens  in  429  d.c,  the  year  in  which  Peri- 
cles died.  His  first  literary  attempts  were  in  poetiy  ;  but  his  at- 
tention was  soon  turned  to  pliilosophy  by  the  teaching  of  Socra- 
tes, whose  lectures  he  began  to  frequent  at  about  the  age  of  twen- 
ty. From  that  time  till  the  death  of  Socrates  he  appears  to  have 
lived  in  the  closest  intimacy  with  that  philosopher.  After  that 
event  Plato  withdrew  to  Megara,  and  subsequently  undertook  some 
extensive  travels,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited  Gyrene,  Egypt, 
Sicily,  and  Magna  Griccia.  His  intercourse  with  the  elder  and 
the  younger  Dionysius  at  Syracuse  has  been  already  related  (p. 
172).  His  absence  from  Athens  lasted  about  twelve  years;  on 
his  return,  being  then  ujAvrirds  of  forty,  he  began  io  teach  in  tha 


238  mSTOKY  OF  GREECE.  Ciiap.  XXLL 

pymnasinm  of  the  Academy.  His  doctrines  were  too  recondite 
for  tlie  popular  car,  and  his  lectures  were  not  numerously  attend- 
ed. 15ut  he  had  a  narrower  circle  of  devoted  admirers  and  disci- 
ples, consisting  of  ahout  twenty-eight  persons,  who  met  in  his  pri- 
rate  house,  over  the  vestibule  of  which  was  inscribed,  '*Let  no 
one  enter  who  is  ignorant  of  geometry."  The  most  distinguished 
of  this  little  band  of  auditors  were  Speusippus,  his  nephew  and 
successor,  and  Aristotle.  lie  died  in  347,  at  the  age  of  81  or  82, 
and  bequeathed  his  garden  to  his  school. 

AiasTOTLE  was  born  in  384  u.c,  at  Stagira,  a  seaport  town  of 
Chalcidice,  whence  he  is  frequently  called  the  Stagirite.  At  the 
age  of  17,  Aristotle,  who  had  then  lost  both  father  and  motlier, 
repaired  to  Athens.  Plato  considered  him  his  best  scholar,  and 
called  him  "the  intellect  of  his  school."  Aristotle  spent  twenty 
years  at  Athens,  during  the  last  ten  of  which  he  established  a 
school  of  his  own.  In  342  he  acce])ted  the  invitation  of  Philip  of 
Macedon  to  undertake  the  instruction  of  his  son  Alexander.  In 
335,  after  Alexander  had  ascended  the  throne,  Aristotle  quitted 
Macedonia,  to  which  he  never  returned.  He  again  took  up  his 
abode  at  Athens,  where  the  Athenians  assigned  him  the  gymna- 
sium called  the  Lyceum  ;  and,  from  his  habit  of  delivering  his  lec- 
tures whilst  walking  up  and  down  in  the  shady  walks  of  this  i)lace, 
his  school  was  called  the  peripatetic.  In  the  morning  he  lectured 
only  to  a  select  class  of  pupils,  called  esoteric.  His  afternoon  lec- 
tures were  delivered  to  a  Avider  circle,  and  were  therefore  called 
exoteric.  It  was  during  the  thirteen  years  in  which  he  presided 
over  the  Lyceum  that  he  composed  the  greater  jjart  of  his  works, 
and  prosecuted  his  researches  in  natural  history,  in  which  he  was 
most  liberally  assisted  by  the  munificence  of  Alexander.  The 
latter  portion  of  Aristotle's  life  was  unfortunate.  He  ajipears  to 
have  lost  from  some  unknown  cause  the  friendship  of  Alexander  ; 
and,  after  the  death  of  that  monarch,  the  disturhanccs  which  en- 
sued in  Greece  proved  unfavourable  to  his  peace  and  security. 
Being  threatened  with  a  prosecution  for  impiety,  he  escaped  from 
Athens  and  retired  to  Chalcis ;  but  lie  was  condemned  to  deatli 
in  his  absence,  and  dcjjrived  of  all  the  rights  and  honours  which 
he  had  previously  enjoyed,  lie  died  at  Chalcis  in  322,  in  tho 
C3d  year  of  his  age. 

Of  all  the  ])liilosophical  systems  of  antiquity,  that  of  Aristotlo 
was  best  ad:i])ted  to  tlie  ja-actical  wants  of  mankind.  It  was 
founded  on  a  close  and  accurate  observation  of  human  nature  and 
of  the  external  world  ;  but,  whilst  it  sought  the  practical  and  use- 
ful, it  did  not  neglect  the  beautiful  and  noble.  Ilis  works  con- 
Bistcd  of  treatises  in  natural,  moral,  and  i)olitical  i)hilosophy,  his- 


CiiAP.  XXII.  AKlisTOTLE— EPICURUS— ZENO. 


239 


tory,  rhetoric,  criticism,  &c. ;  indeed,  there  is  scarcely  a  branch  of 
knowledge  which  his  vast  and  comprehensive  genius  did  not  em- 
brace. 

Epicurus  was  born  at  Samos  in  342,  and  settled  at  Athens  at 
about  the  age  of  35.  Here  he  purchased  a  garden,  where  lie  es~ 
tablished  his  philosophical  school.  He  taught  that  pleasure  is  the 
highest  good ;  a  tenet,  however,  which  he  explained  and  dignified 
by  showing  tliat  it  was  mental  pleasure  that  he  intended.  Tlio 
ideas  of  atheism  and  sensual  degradation  with  which  tlie  name 
of  Epicurus  has  been  so  frequently  coupled  are  founded  on  igno- 
rance of  his  real  teacliing.  But  as  he  denied  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  and  the  interference  of  the  gods  in  human  affairs — though 
he  held  their  existence — his  tenets  were  very  liable  to  be  abused 
by  those  who  had  not  sufficient  elevation  of  mind  to  love  virtue 
for  its  own  sake. 

Zeno  was  a  native  of  Citium  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  set- 
tled at  Athens  about  b.c.  299.  Here  he  opened  a  school  in  the 
Poecile  Stoa,  or  painted  porch,  whence  the  name  of  his  sect.  He 
inculcated  temperance  and  self-denial,  and  his  practice  was  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  precepts. 


AriatoiliS, 


INDEX. 


ABROCOMAS. 

A. 

Abkooomas,  144. 

Academy,  the,  DC,  233. 

Acaraania,  2. 

Achaian  league,  214, 

Achajans,  5. 

Achffius,  5. 

Achaia,  3, 13. 

,  a  Roman  provinco, 

2-21. 

Acliarnaj,  100. 

Achelous,  2. 

Achillea,  7. 

Achradina,  122, 

Acropolis,  Athenian,  65, 
80. 

Adimantus,  G3. 

Admetus,  73. 

Aeetes,  7. 

M'^aleos^  Mt.,  Xerxes  at, 
04. 

.^geus,  G. 

^■^ina,  described,  55. 

iEgospotarai,  battle  of,  133. 

jEgyptus,  5. 

./33olians,  4. 

.Solus,  4. 

.(Eschines  accuses  Demos- 
thenes, 202;  retires  to 
Rhodes,  ib. ;  account  of 
his  life,  235. 

JE  ^chylus,  account  of,  231. 

.5<:tolia,  2. 

iEfcolian  league,  213. 

.^tolians  reduce  1,  213. 

Agamemnon,  5,  7. 

Agesilaus    becomes    King 
of  >Sparta,  140 ;    charac 
ter,  ib. ;   liis  expedition 
against     tlie     Persians, 
161;   attacks  Phamaba 
zu3,  ib. ;  routs  the  Per 
Biaus   on   the   Pactolus, 
152;  recalled,?.').;  home- 
ward   march,  1.54;    in- 
vades Boeotia,  163;  saves 
Sparta,  IGT ;   expedition 
to  Egypt,  170 ;  cicath,i6. 
Agesipolis,  153. 
Agis,  113,  14>. 
-^  -IV.,  215, 


JlLEXANDER. 

Agnon,  79. 
Agora,  9. 

,  Athenian,  90, 


Agrigentum,  42, 

Alcseus,  225. 

Alcibiades,  character  of, 
112;  deceives  the  Spar- 
tan ambassadors,  ib. ;  at 
Olympia,  113 ;  in  Sicily, 
114;  accused  of  mutilat- 
ing the  Henngs,  115 ;  ar- 
rest and  escape  of,  ib. ; 
condemned,  ib. ;  goes  to 
Sparta,  110;  excites  a  re- 
volt of  the  Chians,  123 ; 
dismissed  by  the  Spar- 
tans, 124 ;  flies  to  Tissa 
phernes,  ib. ;  intrigue: 
of,  ib.  ;  procedings  at 
Samos,  120 ;  arrested  by 
Tissaphernes,  127;  de- 
feats the  Peloponnesians 
at  Cyzicus,  ib. ;  returns 
to  Athens,  123 ;  dismiss- 
ed from  the  command 
of  the  Athenian  fleet, 
130;  flies  to  Pharaaba- 
zus,  murdered,  136. 

Alcmsaonideo  banished,  31. 

Alcman,  224, 

Alexander  of  Pherse,  1G8; 
defeated  by  Pelopidas, 
169;  subdued,  2?>.  ■ 

Alexander  the  Great,  132 ; 
education,  183 ;  acces- 
sion, ib. ;  overawes  the 
Thebans  and  Athenians, 
184 ;  generalissimo  a- 
gainst  Persia,  ib. ;  inter- 
view v/ith  Diogenes,  ib. ; 
expedition  against  the 
Thracians,  &c.,  ib.;  re- 
duces the  Thebans  to 
obedience,  185;  demands 
the  Athenian  oi'ators, 
ib. ;  crosses  to  Asia,  186 ; 
forces  the  passage  of  the 
Granicus,  187:  progress 
through  Asia  Minor,  ib. ; 
cuts  the  Gordian  knot, 
183;  dangerous  illness, 
ib. ;  defeats  the  Persians 

Q 


AMYNTAS. 

at    Issus,   183 ;     march 
through  Phoenicia,  190; 
besieges  Tyre  191;   an- 
swer to  Pannenio,  ib. ; 
proceeds  to  Egypt,  ??*.; 
visits  the  temple  of  Am- 
mon,  192;  defeats  Dari- 
us in  the  battle  of  Arbe- 
la^  193 ;  enters  Babylon, 
ib.;    seizes   Susa,  194; 
marches    to    Persepolis, 
ib.;  pursues  Darius,  195; 
invades   Hyrcania,  ib. ; 
enters  Bactria,  196 ;  de- 
feats the  Scythians,  ib. ; 
marries     Roxana,    ib. ; 
kills  Clitus,  197 ;  plot  of 
the    pages   against    his 
life^  ib. ;  crosses  the  In- 
dus, ib. ;  vanquishes  Po- 
ms, 198;  marches  home- 
wards, ib. ;  peril  among 
the  Malli,  ib. ;  arrives  at 
the  Indian  Ocean,  199; 
march   through   Gedro- 
sia,  ib. ;  marries  Statira, 
ib. ;  quells  a  mutiny  at 
Opis,    200 ;     solemnizes 
the  festival  of  Dionysus 
at    Eebatana,  ib. ;     his 
ambitious  projects,  200, 
201 ;   death,  201 ;   char- 
acter, ib. ;    estimate  of 
his  exploits,  ib. ;  funeral, 
20G, 

Alexander,  son  of  Alex- 
ander  the  Great,  206, 
209. 

Alexandria  Arionmi,  105. 

Alexandria  in  Egj-pt, 
founded,  192;  descrip- 
tion of,  ib. 

Alpheus,  3, 

Amnion,  Jove,  192. 

Amphictyonic  council,  ita 
origin  and  constitution, 
11,12. 

Amphictyons,  decree  of 
the,  at  the  end  of  the 
sacred  war,  ISO. 

Amphipolis,  79,  176. 

Amyntas,  100. 


242 


•SNDEX. 


ANACREON. 

Ansicrcon,  226. 

Anactorium,  44. 

Auaxagoras,  230;  charged 
with  impiety,  80. 

Anaxiniaiider,  2iiG. 

Aiiaxinienc.^,  23^. 

Amlocide.-*,  2C4. 

Anicoris,  172. 

Antalcidas,  peace  of,  150. 

Antif^onia?,  Athenian 

tribe,  210. 

Antipjnus,  200:  coalition 
ngainst,  20S;  arisuincri 
the  title  of  king,  210; 
i^hiin,  ib. 

Antigouu3  Doaon,  210. 

Antigonus  Gonutas,  214. 

Antioch,  founded  by  Sc- 
Iciicii.-^,  211. 

Antiochu.-',  130. 

Antiochus  Soter,  213. 

Antiochus  III.,  2r.l. 

Antipater  defeats  the  Spar- 
tans, 202 ;  defeated  at 
tlic  Spercheus,  203,  204; 
overthrows  tl'.e  j^iod 
Greeks  at  Crannon,  204 ; 
demands  the  Athenian 
orators,  2('r);  dcohired 
regent,  207;  death,  i?;. 

Antiplum,  orator,  234. 

Anytus,  140. 

Apaturia,  festival  of,  132. 

ApoUonia,  44. 

Aratus,215. 

Arbcla,  liattle  of,  1G3. 

Arcadia,  2. 

Arcadian  confederation, 
1G7. 

Arclinlaus,  1T5. 

Arehias,  101. 

Archidanius,  100;  besieges 
Platiua,  102. 

Arc'hilochus,  224. 

Archon,  Athenian,  20. 

Areopagus  reformed  Tiy 
PericleH,  70;  hill  of,  00. 

Arginusa\  battle  of,  131. 

Arg(>li.=,  3. 

Argonauts,  7. 

Argos,  3,  5,  IS;  head  of  a 
now  confederacy.  111. 

Ari.idne,  0. 

ArsG'is,  145. 

Arion,  225. 

Ari.;tagoras,  4^. 

Aris tides,  character  of,  r)5; 
organizes  tlie  confedera- 
cy of  Delos,  71 ;  change 
in  hia  viewa,  72 ;  death, 
74. 


ATHENIANS. 

Aristodemua  of  Messenia, 
24. 

Aristoracnes  ,of  Messenia, 
25.  \- 

Aristophanes,  account  of, 
233.  ,    ^ 

Aristotle,  1S3 ;  account  of, 
23S. 

Arsinoi.',  212. 

AfEaphenies,  4S,  51. 

Artaxei-xes,  74,  141. 

Artemisia,  her  prowess,  04. 

Artcmisium,  battle  of,  02. 

Asia  Minor,  Greek  colonies 
in,  18. 

Aspasia,  70. 

Asty,  the,  87. 

Athena,  2 ;  statue  of,  02. 

Athenians,  divided  into 
four  classes,  32 ;  assist 
tlic  lonians,  40 ;  war 
with  yEgin.a,  55;  aban- 
don Athens,  02 ;  consti- 
tution more  democratic, 
72;  form  an  alliance  with 
Argos,  70;  assist  Inarus, 
77;  conquer  Bfjcotia,  ib. ; 
reduce  iEgina,  ib. ;  lose 
their  power  in  U(jnotia, 
ib. ;  despotic  power  of, 
ib. ;  make  peace  Avith 
I'crsia,  ib. ;  conclude  n 
thirty  years'  truce  with 
Sparta,  78;  subjugate 
Sanios,  81 ;  form  an  alli- 
ance with  Corcyra,  ib. ; 
their  allies  and  resources 
in  the  IVloponnesian 
war,  00 ;  their  licet  an- 
noys the  Peloponnesus, 
100;  their  decree  against 
the  Mytileneans,  104; 
takePjius,  100;  expedi- 
tion against  Ikeotia,  108; 
peace  of  Nicias,  110;  re- 
fuse to  evacuate  I'ylus, 
111 ;  treaty  with  Argos, 
112;  conquer  Melos,  113; 
massacre  the  inhabit- 
ant«,  ib. ;  interfere  in  Si- 
cilian affairs,  113;  ex- 
pedition to  Sicily,  115; 
send  a  fresh  Ih-et  to  Sic- 
ily, 110;  defeated  at  sea 
liy  the  Syracusnns,  121 ; 
retreat  from  Syracuse, 
ib. ;  gain  a  naval  virtoiy 
at  (Jynossema,  127;  at 
Aliydos,  ?7'. ;  nt  (Jvzicus, 
12S;  totally  defeated  at 
.Aiijosputami,  133;    ally 


BOULE. 

themselves  with  Tlielio^, 
15;>;  fi)rm  a  league  with 
Corinth  and  Argus  ji- 
gainst  Sparta,  ih. ;  head 
of  a  new  confe<leracy, 
102;  declare  war  against 
Sparta,  ib. ;  peace  with 
Sparta,  1G4;  form  an  al- 
liance with  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  states,  107;  send 
an  embassy  to  Persia, 
108 ;  deceived  bj'  Philip, 
170;  send  a  fleet  to  re- 
lieve Byzantium,  181; 
their  alarm  at  the  ap- 
proach of  Philip,  ih. ; 
prostrated  by  the  battle 
of  Chierunea,  ib. 

Athens,  its  origin,  5,  C; 
early  constitution  of,  20; 
taken  by  the  I'ersians, 
03 ;  second  occupation 
of,  by  the  Persians,  07 ; 
rebuilding  of,  00 ;  in. 
cipient  decline  of,  77; 
crowded  state  of,  during 
the  Peloponncsinn  wai-, 
100;  plague  at^  100,101; 
invested  by  the  Pclopon- 
nesians,  134;  surrender 
of,  ib.  •  democracy  re- 
stored at,  138;  descrip- 
tion of  the  city,  85;  ori- 
gin of  its  name,  80;  re- 
built, 87:  walls,  2fc.;  har- 
bours, 88;  streets,  A:c., 
ib. ;  long  walls  rebuilt, 
157;  captured  by  Deme- 
trius, 211. 

Athos,  Mount,  canal  at,  57. 

Attic  tribes,  four,  20;  in- 
creased to  ten,  30. 

Attica,  2 ;  early  history  of, 
28 ;  three  factions  in,  31. 


P,. 

Babylon  submits  to  Alex- 
ander, 104. 

Darbarian.,  meaning  of 
the  term,  11. 

Rarca,  4-L 

Helus,  temple  of,  103, 

IJessus,  106;  put  to  death, 
.  100. 

Hcuotarchs  restored,  1C2. 

Ha>.otia,  description  of,  2. 

Bosporus,  Athenian  ioll  «l 
the,  123. 

Uouli.,  0. 


INDEX. 


243 


BRASIDAS. 

Brasidas,  100 ;  his  expe- 
dition into  Thrace,  ib. ; 
death,  510. 

Brennus,  214. 

Bucephala,  founded  by  Al- 
exander, IDS. 

Byzantines,  erect  a  statue 
in  lionour  of  Athens,  ISl. 

Byzantium,  44;  taken  by 
the  Athenians,  70,  Tl ; 
besieged  by  Pliilip,  ISl. 

C. 

Cadmea,  or  Theban  cita- 
del, seized  by  the  Spar- 
tans, IGO ;  recovered, 
102. 

Cadmus,  5. 

Callias,  peace  of,  1G4. 

Callicrates,  220. 

(Jallicratidas,  130. 

Callippus,  173. 

Callixenus,  132. 

Cambunian  Mountains,  1. 

Cambyses,  46. 

Carduchi,  147. 

Carthaj^ians  invade  Sic- 
ily, 6(5,  171. 

Caiyatides,  94. 

Caspian  Gates,  195. 

Cassander,  208 ;  establish- 
es an  oligarchy  at  Ath- 
ens, ib. ;  takes  Pydna, 
ib. ;  kills  Koxana  and 
her  son,  2GD. 

Catana,  surprised  by  the 
Athenians,  115. 

Cecropidse,  8(3. 

Cecrops,  5. 

Celts  invade  Macedonia, 
213. 

Cephissus,  the,  8G. 

Ceramicus,  the,  96. 

Chabrias,  102. 

Chserephon,  139. 

Chajronea,  second  battle 
of,  181. 

Chalybes,  the,  14S. 

Charon  of  Thebes,  161. 

Chrj'selephantino  statua- 
ry-, 92. 

Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades, 
72;  assists  the  Lacedae- 
monians, 75;  banished, 
7G ;  his  sentence  re- 
voked, 77 ;  expedition  to 
Cyprus  and  death,  ib. ; 
his  patronage  of  art,  SS. 

Cirrha^an  "plain,  14. 

Clearchus,  142,  14"). 


CRATINU3. 

Cleombrotus  invades  Boo  • 
otia,  1G5;  slain,  ib. 

Cleomenes,  35,  37. 

Cleon,  101 ;  character  of, 
104;  his  violence,  107; 
his  expedition  against 
Sphacteria,  ib. ;  to 
Thrace,  109 ;  flight  and 
death,  110. 

CleophoD,  128. 

Cleruchi.,  38,  79. 

Clisthenes,  35;  his  re- 
forms, 36;  their  effect, 
88. 

Clitus,  saves  Alexander's 
life,  187 ;  killed  by  Alex- 
ander, 197. 

Codrus,  death  of,  28. 

(Jolchians,  the,  143. 

Colonies,  Greek,  39;  rela- 
tion to  the  mother  coun- 
try, ib. ;  how  founded, 
ib. ;  mostly  democratic, 
ib'. ;  in  Asia  Minor,  39, 
40 ;  in  Sicily,  42 ;  in 
Italy,  ib. ;  in  Gaul  and 
Spain,  44 ;  in  Africa,  ib. ; 
in  tlie  Ionian  Sea,  ib. ;  in 
Macedonia  and  Thrace, 
ib. ;  profp-ess  of,  79. 

Comedv,  old  Attic,  233 ; 
new,"  234. 

Conon,  supersedes  Alcibi- 
ades,  130;  defeated  by 
Callicratidas,  131 ;  ac- 
cepts the  command  of 
the  Persian  fleet,  159; 
defeats  the  Spartan  fleet 
at  Cnidus,  154;  reduces 
tlie  Spartan  colonies, 
157;  rebuilds  the  long 
walls  of  Athens,  ib. 

Corcj-ra,  44;  troubles  in, 
104. 

Corcyrajans,  quairel  with 
Corinth,  8! ;  send  an  em- 
bassy to  Athens,  ib. 

Corinth,  battle  of,  154; 
congress  at,  184;  de- 
stroyed by  Mummius, 
221 

Corinthian  Gulf,  2. 

Corinthian  v/ar,  153. 

Corinthians  assist  the  Epi- 
damnians,  81. 

Coronea,  battle  of,  154. 

(yorupedion,  battle  of,  212. 

(Jranai,  86. 

Crannon,  battle  of,  204. 

Cratenis,  200. 

Cratinui,  233. 


DEMETRIUS. 

Crete,  3.    • 

Crimesus,  battle  of,  174. 

Critias,  135;   slain,  137. 

Crito,  140. 

Critolaus,  221. 

Croesus,  4");  fall  of,  4G. 

Croton,  42. 

Cumse,  41. 

Cyclades,  3. 

Cylon,  conspiracy  of,  30. 

Cvnoscephalae,  battle  of, 
169. 

Cyrene,  44. 

Cyrus,  empire  of,  4G ;  cap- 
tures Sardis,  ib. 

Cyrus  the  younger,  arrives 
on  the  coast,  129;  his 
expedition  against  liis 
brother  Artaxerxe^,  141 ; 
march,  142 ;  slain,  145. 

Cyzicus,  127;  recovered  by 
the  Athenians,  128. 

Danae,  5. 

Damj,  5. 

Dauaus,  5. 

Darius,  47;  Thracian  ex- 
pedition of,  ib. :  extorts 
the  submission  of  the 
Macedonians,  48;  death, 
5G. 

Darius  Codomanus,  de- 
feated by  Alexander  r.t 
Issus,  1S9 ;  overthrown 
by  Alexander  at  Arbela, 
I'.'S ;  murdered,  195. 

Datis,  51, 

Decarchies,  Spartan,  145. 

Decelea,  119. 

Delium,  Athenian  expedi- 
tion against,  108 ;  battle 
of,  ib. 

Delos,  confederacy  o^,  71. 

Delphi,  temple  of,  11 ;  or- 
acle, 15;  tfiken  by  tha 
riiociaus,  177. 

Demades,  20.5. 

Demaratus,  GO. 

Demetrias,  Athenian  tribe, 
210. 

Demetrius  of  Phalerus, 
203;  character  of,  209; 
retires  to  Thebes,  ib. 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  200; 
besieges  Salamis,  210; 
besieges  Bhodcs,  ih. ; 
takes  Athens,  211;  king 
of  MacedoD,  ib. ;  deatli, 
212. 


244 


INDEX. 


DEMIUUGI. 

Dcmiurgi,  G. 

Demosthenes,  general ,  105, 
108. 

Dcmorfthcne-',  onvtor,  ac- 
count of,  ITS;  PhiUppics^ 
first,  17'J ;  Oliinthiacs^ 
ib. ;  fights  at  Chreronea, 
ISl;  liid  conduct  aftei' 
rhilip's  (Icatli,  1&4;  pro- 
poses reliyious  lionours 
for  Philip's  assassin, 
ib. ;  exertions  to  roucc 
Greece,  1S5;  embassy  to 
Alexander,  ih.\  accused 
by  iK-ichines — speech  on 
tlta  Crou'i)^  202 ;  con- 
demned of  corruption, 
203 ;  recalled  from  exile, 
204;  demanded  by  An- 
tipator,  205;  e -capes  to 
Calaurea,  ib. ;  death,  ih. ; 
cliaracter  as  an  orator, 
235. 

Dercyllidas,  150. 

TMacrii,  31. 

Diajus,  221. 

Dicastcries,  76. 

Dinarciuis,  230. 

Dio^^enes,  liis  interview 
with  Alexander,  lS-1. 

Dion,  exiled,  1T2;  takes 
Syracuse,  ib. ;  assassin- 
ated, 173. 

Dionysius  the  elder,  tyrant 
of  Syracuse,  171 ;  dttith 
and  character,  172. 

Dionysius  the  younger, 
172;  expelled  by  Dion, 
il>. ;  retires  to  Corinth, 
174. 

Dionvsn.^,  theatre  of,  at 
Athens,  95. 

Diopithc.-',  ISO. 

Dithyramb,  invention  of 
the,  225;  the  source  of 
tragedy,  ib. 

Dorcis,  71. 

Dorians,  4;  in  Telopon- 
ncsus,  17 ;  migrations  of 
the,  ib. ;  three  tribea  of, 
20. 

Doris,  2 

Doni 

Draco,  laws  of,  30. 


^,4. 


E. 

Ecclesia.,  the,  37. 

Egypt,    its    inllucnce   on 

(ircecc,  5. 
Elis,  .•{, 


GORDIAN.  I 

Epaminondas,  IGl ;  his' 
chaructcr,  1C3;  embassy] 
to  Sp.irta,  1G4;  military 
genius  of,  1G5;  defeats 
the  Spartans  at  Lcuctra, 
IGG ;  invades  Laconia, 
1G7 ;  establishes  the  Ar- 
cadian confederation, 
and  restores  tlie  Messe- 
niiins,  1G7-S;  saves  the 
Theban  army,  IGO ;  res- 
cues Telopidas,  ib. ;  last 
invasion  of  Teloponne- 
sus,  170;  death  of,  ib. 

Ephesus,  41. 

Ephialtcs,  GO. 

Epliialtes  (the  friend  of 
rericles),  7G. 

Ephors,  21 ;  povv'cr  of  the, 
ib. 

Epicurean  sect,  237. 

Epicurus,  230. 

Epidamnus,  44,  81. 

Epimenidcs,  31. 

Epipohc,  117. 

Epirus,  2. 

Ercchtheum,  93. 

Eubotja,  3;  revolt  from 
Athens,  78;  second  re- 
volt of,  126. 

Euclides,  archon,  138. 

Eumones,  206. 

Eunicnidts  of  iElschylus, 
76. 

Eumolpidfe,  115. 

Eupafridoi.!  6;  nature  of 
their  government,  30. 

Euphrates,  surveyed  by 
order  of  Alexander,  201. 

Euripides,  account  of,  233 ; 
character  as  a  poet,  ib. 

I'^urotas,  3. 

i'^urybiades,  50. 

Eurystheus,  6. 

Evagoras,  150. 


Flamhiinu.s  T.  Q.,  219. 

^'-  Four  Hundred,"  conspi- 
racy of  the,  125;  put 
down,  127. 


IGalatia,  214. 
Gaugamela,   battle  of  (u. 

Arbcla). 
Gelon  of  Syracuse,  53,  06. 
Geomotn\  (>,  29. 
(rcru-^a.,  Spartan,  21. 
Gordian  knot,  tlie,  ISS. 


iiippARcnus. 

GranlcuB,  battle  of  the, 
187. 

Greece,  form  of,  1 ;  physi- 
cal feiitures,  3;  reduced 
to  a  Koman  province, 
221. 

Greek  language,  11;  his- 
tory, early,  ib. 

Greeks,  character  of  the, 
3;  cause.^  which  united 
them,  11;  disunion  of, 
on  the  approach  of 
Xerxes,  58 ;  celebrate 
tlie  battle  of  S<ilamis, 
04;  expedition  of  tlio 
Ten  Thousand,  1-12 ;  re- 
treat of,  1-17;  arri%'e  at 
the  ICiixine,  14S ;  at  By- 
zantium, ib. 

Gj'lippus  an-ivcs  in  Sicily, 
118;  captures  the  fort  of 
Labdalum,  ib. 


II. 

Ilamilcar,  60. 
Hannibal,  217. 
Ilarmodius   and  Aristogl. 

ton,  conspiracy  of,  35. 
Ilarmosts,  Spartan,  149. 
Ilarpagus,  46. 
Ilarpalus,  202. 
Ilecataius,  40. 
Helen,  7. 
Helirea,  37. 
HcUanodicJO,  13. 
Hellas,  1. 
Hellen,  4 
Hellenes,  1. 
HoUenotamia?,  71. 
Hellespont,     bridge    ovct 

the,  57. 
Helots,  condition  of,  21; 

revolt  of,  75. 
Ileplirostion,  marries  D;y- 

pctis,  109 ;  death,  200. 
Ileraclidro,  return  of  the, 

17. 
Hercules,  0. 
Hernia?,  mutilated,  114. 
Heniiolaus,  197. 
Herodotus,   227;    account 

of  his  work,  ib. 
Heroes,  0. 
Heroic  age,  9;  manners  of, 

ib. 
Il&siod,  222. 
lliero  of  Syracuse,  226. 
Hipparchus,  assassinuteJi 

35. 


INDEX. 


245 


HIPPIAS. 

Ilippia?,  35;  exiiellcd  from 
Athens,  3G. 

llitftiteurt  of  Miletus,  43; 
crucified,  50. 

Ilistoiy,  rise  of,  227. 

Homer,  222 ;  his  identity, 
233 ;  date,  ib. 

Homeric  poems,  their  val- 
ue, 8,  9 ;  preservation 
of,  223;  arranged  by  Pi- 
sistratus,  ib. 

Hypcrides,  203,  23G. 

llyphasis,  the,  198. 


Ilissus,  S5. 

Ion,  5. 

Ionia,  subjupcated  by  the 

Persians,  51. 
lonians,  5;  four  tribes  of, 

29;    revolt  of  the,   49; 

defection  from  Sparta, 

71. 
Ionic  mis^ation,  IS. 
lophon,  232. 
Iphicrates,  tactics  of,  158; 

successes  of,  ib. 
Iphitus,  13. 
Ipsus,  battle  of,  210. 
Ira,  fortress  of,  25. 
I?seas,  235. 
I.sagoras,  36. 
le^mcnias,  1G8,  160. 
Isocrates,  235. 
Issus,  battle  of,  139. 
I.-^thmian  games,  14. 
Ithome,  Mount,  24, 168. 


Jason,  7. 

Jason  of  Phera^,  IGG;   as- 
sassinated, 167. 

K. 

Knights,  Athenian,  32. 


Lacedaemonians  (v.  Spar- 
ta). 

Lachara^i  211. 

Lacoaia,  3 ;  reduced  by  the 
Spartans,  24;  northern 
frontier  of,  2G. 

Lado,  battle  of,  50. 

Lamachus,  114. 

liamian  war,  204. 

Lnrnpsacu?,  133. 

Larissa,  147. 


MARATHON. 

Laurium,  silver  mines  at, 
55. 

Leonidas,  59;  his  death, 
61. 

Leonnatus,  204. 

Leontiades,  KJO. 

Leosthenes,  203. 

Leotychides,  OS. 

Leucas,  44. 

Lcuctra,  battle  of,  165. 

Literature,  Greek,  history 
of,  223. 

Locrians,  2. 

Locris,  2. 

Long  walls,  Athenian,  SS; 
rebuilt,  157. 

Lycabettu.=,  S5. 

Lyceum,  90. 

Lycon,  140. 

Lycm'gus  (legislator),  19. 

Lycurgus  (orator),  236. 

Lydian  monarchy,  45. 

Lyric  poetry,  224;  occa- 
sions of,  ib. ;  develop- 
ment of,  236. 

Lysander,  appointed  Xa- 
varcfnis-i  129;  intrusted 
by  Cyrus  with  his  sa- 
trapy, 132 ;  his  proceed- 
ings after  the  victory  of 
j5!^ospotami,  133 ;  block- 
ades Pirfcus,  lb. ;  takes 
possession  of  Athens, 
134 ;  establishes  the 
Thirty  Tyrants,  135 ; 
triumph,  ib. ;  honours, 
137 ;  re-enters  Athens, 
ib.  ;  his  ambitious 
schemes,  150 ;  despatch- 
ed to  the  Hellespont, 
151;  expedition  into  Boe- 
otia,  153;  slain,  ib. 

Lysias,  234. 

Lysimachus,  20G,  210 ; 
slain,  212. 

J,L 

Macedonia,  description  of, 
175. 

Macedonian  empire,  parti- 
tion of,  20G;  overthrow, 
220. 

Macedonians,  their  origin, 
175. 

IMacrones,  the,  148. 

Magna  Grrocia,  42. 

Malli,  the,  198. 

Mantinea,  battle  of,  113; 
third  battle  of,  218. 

Marathon,  battle  of,  53.      i 


NEODAMODES. 

Mardonius,  51 ;  adroit  flat- 
tery of,  65;  negotiations 
with  the  Athenians,  60 ; 
marches  against  Athens, 
67 ;  retreats,  ib. ;  death, 
ib. 

Massalia,  44. 

Medea,  7. 

Medes,  the,  45. 

Medon,  first  Athenian  ar- 
chon,  29. 

Megabazus,  47,  4S. 

Megacles,  30. 

Megalopolis  founded,  107; 
battle  of,  202. 

Megara  revolts  frona 
Athens,  78;  complains 
of  Athens,  82. 

Megaris,  2. 

Melcart,  190,  191. 

Meletus,  140. 

Melos,  113. 

Menander,  234. 

Menelaus,  7. 

Menon,  147. 

Mespila,  147. 

Messene  founded,  1C8. 

Messenia,  3. 

Messenian  war,  first,  24; 
second,  25;  third,  75. 

Messenians  conquered  by 
the  Spartans,  24;  sub- 
jugated, 26. 

Metellus,  221. 

Miletus,  fall  of,  50. 

Miltiades,  52 ;  accusation 
and  death  of,  55. 

Mindarus,  127. 

Minos,  6,  7. 

Minotaur,  6. 

Morea,  2. 

Mummius,  221;  his  igno- 
rance of  art,  ib. 

Munychia,  SS. 

Museum,  86. 

Mycale,  battle  of,  GS. 

Mycenas,  5;  ruins  of,  10. 

Mytilcn?,  naval  engage- 
ment at,  131. 

Mytileneans,  revolt  of  the, 
103;  capitulate,  ib. 


N. 

Naxos,  Spartan  expedition 

against,  48. 
Neapolis,  IIG. 
Nearchus,  voyage  of,  199. 
Nemean  games,  14. 
Neodamodes,  151. 


246 


INDEX. 


NictEJi,  f;)undc.l  liy  Alcx- 
andci",  l'.>8. 

Nicius,  107;  concludes  a 
peace  witli  S/utii,  110; 
appointed  coniinander  in 
Sicily,  114;  Ids  dilatory 
proceed! iif^.s  there,  118; 
dst'pondiug  situation  of, 
lit);  indecision,  ib. ;  sur- 
reHdcr,  122 ;  death,  ib. ; 
character,  ib. 

Nikv)  Aptcros,  temple  of, 
88. 

Nineveh, 147. 

Nobles,  9. 

O. 

(Enophyta,  battle  of,  77. 

()lij,'archy,  27. 

Oiynipia,  3. 

Olympiad,  first,  4. 

Olympian  murdered,  208, 

Olympic  gauu's,  12. 

Olynthiac  orations  of  De- 
mosthenes, IT'J. 

Oiynthian  confederacy  dis- 
.«olvo;l,  IGO. 

Olynthus,  159;  taken  by 
the  Spartans,  100. 

Onomarchus,  177. 

Opuntian  Locrians,  152. 

Orators,  Athenian,  de- 
manded by  Alexander, 
1S5;  ten  Attic,  234. 

Oratoiy,  Greek,  rise  and 
progress  of,  234. 

Orchomenos,  1G3. 

Ortygia,  11(5. 

Ostracism,  introduced  by 
(Jlisthcnes,  37. 

Oxyaites,  11)6. 

P. 

Pachcs,  ion,  104. 

I'.amisus,  lUvcr,  3. 

Pancratium,  13. 

PanirroiH,  177. 

pMrali,  31. 

Paris,  7. 

Parmcnin,  187;  put  to 
death  by  Alexander,  100. 

Parnassus,  Mount,  2. 

Parthenon,  90. 

Parysatis,  Queen,  14C,  152. 

Pasarga.he,  V.)i. 

Panlns,  L.  /ICm.,  220. 

I'ausaiiias,  King  of  Snarti, 
vanity  and  treason  of, 
71 ;  recftll  and  impcach- 


PERSIAN'S. 

ment  of,  72;  conviction 
and  death,  ib. 

Pausanias  (second),  137 ; 
expedition  into  J5(jcotia, 
ir)3 ;  coudenmed  to 
death,  ib. 

Pausanias  assassinates 
Philip,  182. 

Pedieis,  31. 

Pelasgians,  4. 

I'elopidas,  cliaracter  of, 
101 ;  gains  a  victory  at 
Tegyra,  103 ;  subdues 
Alexander  of  I'liera', 
108;  imprisoned  by  Alex- 
ander, 101);  defeats  Alex- 
ander, ib. ;  t-laiu,  ib. 

Peloponne.sian  confede- 
racy, meeting  of,  82; 
decides  for  Avar  against 
Athens,  ib. ;  war,  com- 
mencement of,  ib. ;  in- 
vasion of  Attica,  99  ; 
Thucydides'  character  of 
the  war,  228. 

Peloponnesus,  2. 

Pelops,  5. 

Peneus,  2. 

Penj-ab,  the,  197. 

Pcntacosiomediumi,  32. 

I'entathlum,  13. 

Perdiccas,  82, 

Perdiccas  (Alexander's 
general),  200 ;  marches 
against  Ptolemy,  207 ; 
assassinated,  ib. 

Pericles,  character  of,  70 ; 
innovations  of,  ib. ;  his 
administration,  ib. ;  re- 
duces Euboja,  78;  plans 
for  adorning  Athens,  ib. ; 
pleads  for  Aspasia,  SO; 
funeral  oration  by,  100  ; 
accused  of  peculation, 
101  •  death  and  charac- 
ter, 102. 

Pericles,  age  of,  character 
of  art  in,  83. 

Perinthus,  siege  of,  181. 

Periojci,  20. 

Peripatetics,  237. 

Perscpolis,  taken  and 
l)urut  by  Alexander, 
194. 

Peiveus,  219 ;  defeated  by 
the  Romans,  220. 

Persians,  4ii;  their  cniel- 
tios  towards  the  Ionic 
(ireeks,  r>0 ;  invade 
Gre(!ce,  51  ;  demand 
ojirth    and   water   from 


rnoCIANS. 

the  Grecian  state?,  t&. ; 
second  invasion  of 
Greece,  ib.  ;  land  nt 
Marathon,  52;  third  in- 
vasion ot  Greece,  57 ; 
their  number  under 
Xerxes,  ib. ;  destruction 
of  their  fleet  by  a  storm, 
01 ;  their  progress,  02 ; 
attack  Delphi,  03 ;  taka 
Athens,  ib. ;  retreat  of, 
C(). 

Phalanx,  Macedonian,  170. 

Phiilerum,  SS. 

I'hidias  accused  of  pecula. 
tioii,  SO. 

Philemon,  234. 

Philip  of  Macedon,  carried 
to  Thebes  as  a  hostage, 
108;  education  of,  175; 
character,  176 ;  defeats 
the  Illyrians,  ib. ;  takes 
Amphipolis  and  Pydna, 
ib. ;  takes  part  in  the 
sacred  war,  178;  reduce.-? 
Thessaly,  ib, ;  expedi- 
tion into  Thrace,  ISO; 
takes  Olynthus,  179 ;  oc- 
cupies Delphi,  ISO; 
second  expedition  into 
Thrace,  181;  compelled 
to  evacuate  the  Cherso- 
nese, ib. ;  defeats  the 
Thebans  and  Athenians 
at  Cha?ronea,  ib. ;  his 
conduct  after  the  battle, 
182;  clemency  towards 
Athens,  ib.;  appointed 
generalissimo  against 
Persia,  ib. ;  assassin- 
ated, ?7). ;  character,  ib. 

Philip  IV.,  211. 

Philip  v.,  210;  assists  the 
Aclueans,  217 ;  forms  an 
alliance  with  Hannibal, 
;7). ;  flefcnted  by  the 
INmians,  218. 

Philip  Arrhidanis,  20G, 

Philippi  founded,  177. 

riiili]>j.ic.-^  of  Demos- 
thenes, 178;  fii-pt,  179. 

Pliilomehis,  177;  slain,  ib. 

l'hilop(vmen,  218;  takes 
Sparta,  219;  taken  and 
put  to  death,  il). 

Philo.-opliy,  trreek,  origin 
of,  230;  Ionic  scIuh)!  of, 
7/'. ;  I'.leatic  school,  77'. ; 
Pythagorean  scliool, 
237 ;  various  school;?,  ib. 

Phociaup,  177. 


INDEX. 


2^7 


PIIOCION. 

Phocion,  179;  refuses  Alex- 
ander's presents,  ISO ; 
accusation  and  death, 
208. 

Pliocis,  2. 


Phoebidas,  IGO. 

Phoenicians,  5. 

Phrynichus,  126. 

Phrynichus  (dramatist), 
acrount  of,  230. 

Phyllidas,  101. 

J'itiacotheca,  90. 

Pindar,  account  of,  220; 
his  house  sparel  by 
Alexander,  1S5. 

Pindus,  Mount,  2. 

I'irajua  fortified,  70. 

Pisa,  3. 

I'isandei',  152. 

Pir.\=tratu3,  u3ui"pation  of, 
33 ;  \vs  stratagem,  ib. ; 
his  deatn,  3i ;  his  char- 
acter, 35. 

Plague  at  Athens,  100. 

Plat;ca,  battle  of,  67 ;  sur- 
prir^ed,  82;  besieged  by 
the  Peloponnesians,  102 ; 
surrenders,  103;  destroy- 
ed, ib. ;  restored  by  the 
Lacedar-monians,  159 ; 
again  destroyed  by  the 
Thebaus,  16-i. 

Platfoans  join  the  Athe- 
nians, 52. 

Plato  visits  Sicily,  172 ; 
gold  as  a  slave,  ib. ; 
Bocond  visit  to  Sicily, 
ib.;  lifoof,  237;  philos- 
ophy, ib. 

Pleistoanax,  78. 

Pnyx,  the,  80,  96. 

Poccile  Stoa.,  the,  239. 

Poetry,  Greek,  222. 

Polemarch,  29. 

Polybius,  219. 

Polycrates  of  Sanios,  46. 

Polysperchon,  207;  expe- 
dition to  Peloponnesus, 
27;. 

Poru?!,  197. 

Potidsea,  170. 

Pratinas,  230. 

Propylaja,  90. 

Prytanes,  132. 

Ptolemy,  206  ;  defeated  at 
Salamis,  210. 

Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  212, 
213. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  21 2. 

Pydna,  208 ;  battle  of,  220. 

Pylus,  100. 


SOCRATES. 

Pyrrlius,    211 ;     becomes 
king  of  Macedonia,  212. 
Pythagoras,  42,  237. 
Pythia,  15. 
Pythian  game?,  14. 

R. 

Rhapsodists,  223. 

Rhegium,  42. 

Rhodes,  3 ;  siege  of,  210. 

Romans,  direct  their  at- 
tention towards  Greece, 
218 ;  declare  v/ar  against 
Philip  v.,  ib.;  proclaim 
the  freedom  of  Greece, 
219;  declare  war  against 
Perseus,  220. 

Roxana,  man-ied  by  Alex- 
ander, 190 ;  murdered, 
209. 

S. 

SacreaP.and,  Theban,  162. 

Sacred  war,  iTT. 

Salamis,  acquired  by  the 
Athenians,  31 ;  battle  of, 
04. 

Salamis  (in  Cyprus),  battle 
of,  210. 

Samos,  revolt  of,  81;  sub- 
dued, ib. ;  its  inriJortaDce 
to  Athens,  124;  revolu- 
tions at,  126. 

Sappho,  225. 

Sardis,  45;  burnt,  49. 

Scarphea,  battle  of,  221. 

Scione,  109. 

Scythini,  the,  148. 

Seleucus,  207;  founds  An- 
tioch,  211;  succeeds  to 
the  greater  part  of  the 
Macedonian  empire,  213 ; 
assassinated,  ib. 

Sellasia,  battle  of,  210. 

Selymbria,  44. 

Sestos,  reduced  by  the 
Athenians,  OS. 

Sicilian  expedition,  114; 
termination  of,  122. 

Simonides  of  Ceos,  226. 

Sisygambis,  190. 

Slaves,  9. 

Social  war,  177 ;  ill  effects 
of  the,  ib.  ;  second,  217. 

Socrates  at  Delium,  108; 
opposes  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  ten  generals, 
lo2 ;  f^kctch  of  his  life, 
138;    hid  teaching  and 


SPARTANS. 

method,  139  ;  wisdom  of, 
ib. ;    unpopularity    and 
indictment  of,  ib. ;  con- 
demned 140  ;  refuses  to  . 
escape,  ib. ;  death,  ib. 

Sogdiana,  fortress  of, 
taken,  190. 

Solon,  30;  legi.slation  of, 
31. 

Sophocles,  account  of,  282 ; 
character  as  a  poet,  ib. 

Sparta,  IS;  landed  prop- 
erty in,  23;  earthquake 
at,  75;  allies  of  in  the 
Peloponnesian  v/ar,  99 ; 
league  against,  li>3 ;  con- 
gress at,  104 ;  rapid  fall 
of,  107 ;  taken  by  Anti- 
gonus  Doson,  210;  taken 
by  Philopoemen,  219. 

Spartan  constitution,  20; 
tribes,  ib. ;  education, 
22;  women,  23;  money, 
ib. 

Spartans,  make  war  on 
Arcadia,  24;  alone  re- 
tain their  kings,  27; 
overthrow  the  despots, 
28 ;  conduct  of,  iu  Ther- 
mopylae, 00 ;  selfish  c2°-. 
duct  of,  62 ;  dismiss  the 
Athenians,  75 ;  oppose 
the  Athenians  in  Bceo- 
tia,  77;  invade  Attica, 
99 ;  send  an  embassy  to 
Athens,  100 ;  invade  Ar- 
gos,  113;  force  the  Ar- 
gives  to  an  alliance,  ib. ; 
establish  themselves  at 
Decelea,  119;  assist  the 
Phocians  against  the 
Thebans,  153;  defeated 
at  Ilaliartns,  ih. ;  pro- 
claim the  independence 
of  the  Boeotian  cities, 
1.59 ;  garrison  Orchome- 
nus  and  Thespia?,  ib. ; 
assist  Amyntas  against 
the  01}Tithi;ms,  169 ; 
lieight  of  their  power, 
ib. ;  expelled  from  Boeo- 
tia,  164;  solicit  the  aid 
of  the  Athenians,  168; 
send  an  embassy  to  Per- 
sia, ib. ;  excluded  from 
the  Amphictyonic  coun- 
cil, ISO ;  attempt  to 
throw  oft' the  Macedonian 
yoke,  202;  their  decline 
and  degradation,  215 ; 
call  in  the  Romans,  220. 


fii:)eusippu!^,  238. 

.Spluicteri.i,  Itlockadcd, 
I'XJ;  captured  103. 

^.p(>r!ldei',  a. 

ijtatira,  1'.10, 109;  murder- 
ed by  Koxiina,  200. 

Stoics,  237. 

btratcgi,  Atlicnian,  101. 

Stratouicc,  211. 

Su3a,  treasures  at,  194. 

Sybaris,  its  luxury,  42;  de- 
stroyed, ?■&. 

Sybarites,  79. 

isipitaxiii^  tlie,  102. 

Syracusans,  tb.eir  vigorous 
defence,  IIC. 

Syracuse,  42;  description 
of.,  IIG;  naval  battle  at, 
IIS;  enf:ja!:<»ment  in  the 
Great  Ilurbour  of,  121 ; 
constitution  of,  171. 

SijssiticL,  22. 


.       riHIDAZUS. 

the  SpartanH,  1G2;  de- 
clared licad  of  Greece  I^y 
the  Tcrsians,  109 ;  dc- 
ptroyed,lS5;  restored  by 
Cassandcr,  208. 

Themistoclcs,  propose.^  a 
fleet,  55;  his  character, 
ib. ;  his  advice  to  fight 
at  Salami?,  03;  his  strat- 
agem to  bring  on  an  en- 
gagement, 04 ;  his  mes- 
sage to  Xeiice.-:,  ib. ;  re- 
warded by  the  Spartans, 
CO ;  his  views,  70 ;  goes 
ambassador  to  Sparta, 
ib. ;  corruption  of,  73 ; 
ostracised,  ib. ;  flight, 
ib. ;  reception  in  Persia, 
ib. ;  death,  74. 

Theramenes.  120, 132, 136; 
his  fi--  ;■ .  >:  '■ 

T"  2;    pass  of, 


iTliei'eum. 


*iTnhIft  C'oni.  ^vuions,"  tl 


?f^  30. 


Zi.UGIT^.. 
TIsHuphernes,     124,     127, 

14«);  attacks  the  Ionian 

cities,    150 ;    bche::deJ, 

152. 
Tlthraustes,  152. 
Tolmides,  73. 
Torone,  109. 
Ti-agedy,  Greek,  oriiin  of, 

230. 
Ti-apezu8,.148. 
Trilogies,  231. 
Tnparadisus,     treaty     of, 

207. 
Trojan  expedition,  T. 
Troy  cai)turcd,  8. 
Ti/rant.,  value  of  ♦' 

27. 
7^-  ly  Aioi- 

Tyrtwus,  k; 

U. 

','.'yBSi 

Uxiauji,  UX-,  JU'4. 


tic*     Ot?  , 


,    tuc  Ar- 

::iais,  194. 

Thales  of  Iililetus,  23G. 

Thasos,  reduced,  75. 

Tlieban.s,  surprise  Plat.Tn, 
82;  expel  King  Agesi- 
laus  from  Aulis,  151;  in- 
vade I'hocis,  152  ;  form 
an  alliance  with  Athens, 
15;'.;  forced  into  the 
I.ticedamionian  alliance, 
100 ;  rise  ()f  tlicir  as- 
ccu'lcncy,  100;  defeated 
liy  Alexander  of  I'heriv, 
109 ;  ally  themselves 
with  the  Athenians 
aL'ainst  PliUip,  ISl ; 
humbledby  Philip,  1S2; 
rise  against  the  Jlacedo- 
nians,  1S5. 

Thobes,  2 ;  liberated  from 


"."  73. 

■.  150. 

\  ■  ■       truce,  78. 

J  i'yrants  at  Athens, 

llift;  i^roscription  of  the, 

130  ;   defeated  by  Thra- 

sybulus,137;  deposed  by 

the  Spartans,  13S. 

Thrasvbulus,  120 ;  takes 
Phylo,  137;  seizes  Pi- 
rreus,  ib. ;  defeats  the 
Thirty,  ib. 

Thrasyllus,  120. 

Thucydides  (the  historian), 
in  Thrace,  109;  banish- 
ed, ?7>. ;  account  of,  228; 
his  history,  ib. 

Thurii,  79. 

Timocrates,  152. 

Timoleon,  character  of, 
173 ;  expedition  to  Sic- 
ily, ib. ;  defeats  fhn 
Carthaginians,  174;  be- 
comes a  Syracusau  citi- 
zen, ib. 

Timotheiis,  102. 

Tiribazus,  15S. 


recovers 


cue  Thracian  Cherso- 
nese, 08. 

Xenophanes,  236. 

Xenophon,  account  of,  229; 
Iiis  works,  ib. ;  accom- 
panies Cynis,  142 ;  sa- 
luted General  of  the  Ten 
Thousand,  147;  returns 
to  Athens,  148;.  joind 
Agcsilaup,  ib. 

Xerxes,  character  of,  50; 
subdues  Kgypt,  ib.  ; 
marches  towan's  Gi-eece, 
57;  reviews  hi>  troop.-, 
ib.;  crosses  the  llclUv- 
pont,  ib. ;  number  of  b.is 
liost,  ib. ;  takes  Athens, 
03:  his  alaiTO  nnd  re- 
treat, 05»^ 

Xuthus,  4. 

Z. 

ZaleuouH,  laws  of,  42. 
Zca,  88. 
Zeno,  239. 
Zctigitce.)  32. 


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